[Vision2020] Is there a correct interpretation of the bible? Response

Mon, 19 Jan 2004 19:56:26 -0800

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Response to an Inaccurate Characterization

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A person (or persons) calling themselves(s) Edna Wilmington has stated =
what they believe is my position regarding Christian beliefs and ethics.

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Since her(?) characterization is greatly in error, I offer a short, =
encapsulated view of my position, if anyone is interested.

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If you are not interested in logical or epistemological discussions on =
religious issues, please hit the delete key now, since without this =
interest much of what follows will be merely boring.  It may be boring =
even with this interest.

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Knowledge Claims

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If anyone makes statements purporting to be true and not intending to be =
fantasy, then those statements, whatever the subject matter, are =
knowledge claims - that the substantive assertions made about what is =
called the universe (in the broadest sense) are true.

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Whenever anyone makes a knowledge claim, it doesn't follow that the =
claim is true.

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Examples:

The moon is made of green cheese.

The present king of the United States is 39 years old.

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As far as we can tell, it is very improbable that the moon is made of =
green cheese.  As far as I know there is no present king of the United =
States.

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Hence, whenever a knowledge claim is made, the curious hearer or reader =
will try to test that claim for truth.  In many cases, a complete test =
is impossible because of the necessary background required is not =
possessed by the tester, e.g., the average person would not be able =
without a great deal of time and effort to decide whether the Fixed =
Point Theorem for Euclidean Space or Fermat's Last Theorem is true.

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However, given many topics a patient, open-minded knowledge claim tester =
may apply certain tests to the assertions of that knowledge claim, some =
of which give answers which are probably definitive, and others which =
might be helpful in determining the probability of the knowledge claim's =
truth.

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A method given in steps which works similarly to a sieve is given below.

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Logical Consistency

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Direct Contradictions

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If the set of statements in which the knowledge claim (or belief) is =
stated contains a direct contradiction, then the claim will be rejected =
as false.  A contradiction is a compound statement in which X and its =
negation not-X is asserted.

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Example:

John is 6 feet tall and John is not 6 feet tall.

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Contradictions are always false.

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In previous posts to Vision 2020 some have argued for a variety of =
reasons that as far as religious statements go contradictions are not =
fatal.

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Until someone gives a credible example of a contradiction that is not =
false, I will continue to believe they are always false.  I suspect that =
mentally healthy people everywhere will do so also.  Clinical =
psychologists call those who believe in contradictory statements =
sufferers from compartmentalization.

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Derivable Contradictions

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The next test for logical consistency is to test for  derivable =
contradictions, that is, a direct contradiction found by making =
deductions from various statements in the knowledge claim at issue.

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Suppose someone asserts that John is exactly 46 years old and John is =
exactly 57 years.

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If someone is exactly 47 years old, then they are not exactly 57 years =
old by the very meaning of the terms used; hence a contradiction occurs =
by asserting John is exactly 57 years old and John is not exactly 57 =
years old.

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If a knowledge claim contains a derivable contradiction, then it is =
false.

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A more complicated, but well known example of a derivable contradiction =
is the assertion the square root of two is a rational number.  Even with =
a little bit of arithmetic knowledge and some patience, the curious =
reader can show that this statement leads to a contradiction.

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Logical Fallacies

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Many knowledge claims contain arguments for their truth embedded within =
the knowledge claim itself.  Aside from containing false or =
unintelligible statements there are many ways an argument can be =
fallacious because of its form.

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Example:

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Everything in the universe has a cause; therefore the universe has a =
cause.  That cause is called God.

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This fallacy is called Ascribing the Properties of the Part to the =
Whole.

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That this is fallacious argument form can be seen by the following =
contra-examples:

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Every block in the city of Fly Valley, Utah is square; therefore the =
city of Fly Valley, Utah is square.

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Every application of pigment in Cranston's 'Nude in an Olive Oil =
Factory' is circular; therefore Cranston's painting is circular.

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Among the most common logical fallacies found in non-scientific =
knowledge claims is that of vagueness and/or equivocation where words =
are so ill-defined that it is not clear what is being asserted or where =
the same word is given different meanings, sometimes very subtly.

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A person wishing to avoid being hood-winked by specious knowledge claims =
would do well to absorb the material in some good logic texts, =
particularly those with extensive sections and examples of informal =
fallacies.

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Other Logical Tests for Falsity

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Provided a knowledge claim is intelligible (see below), then further =
logical tests can be applied to it.  If absurdities or grossly =
improbable conclusions can be derived from the knowledge claim, then the =
claim becomes extremely dubious.

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Examples (the absurdities of which the thoughtful reader can discover =
for themselves as an exercise):

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Example 1:

Jesus is descended from David through Joseph and (asserting in the same =
claim):

Jesus is the product of an immaculate (spermless) conception.

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Example 2:

It is possible to have some certain knowledge of an all-powerful god.

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Intelligibility and Verifiability

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Some statements, though syntactically correct, appear to lack =
intelligibility, that is, given the ordinary uses of the words in which =
the statement is composed, it does not have a clearly decipherable =
substantive meaning, although the combination of the words because of =
their connotations may sometime evoke feelings, even strong ones.

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Examples:

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The square root of a minus jelly cannibalizes rhetoric.

Calcium presides over spontaneity.

God is love.  (Assuming the ordinary meaning of 'is' as identity.)

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Some care must be exercised when deciding whether a statement is in fact =
unintelligible.  Some statements which appear to be unintelligible can =
have internal meaning within certain contextual frameworks.

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One test applied in the scientific world and generally in the mundane =
world is that a statement is unintelligible if no testable statements =
can be derived from it, i.e., it is not possible to describe what =
different observations would be made if the statement were true from =
what observations would be made if the statement would be false.

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If the knowledge claim at issue has survived the above tests, then the =
last test is to deduce expected observations from the claim and then see =
if, in fact, these observations occur.  In the case of so-called real =
objects in the universe, such observations are of various phenomena.  In =
mathematics and logic, the observations may be of the nature of =
deductions, examples, and/or counter-examples.

=20

The above is a greatly simplified description of the empirical method.  =
Time limitations persuade me that those really interested can find a =
much scholarly write-up in many different places.

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Aside from the fact that such a view eliminates a great deal of what =
people believe to be true, this view has a serious problem for many =
people:  using this method, knowledge is not certain but possessed of =
various degrees of probability.  The statements asserted by applied =
physics generally carry a very high probability.  Many hypotheses =
asserted by economists, political scientists, or social psychologist may =
carry a much lower probability.  Some people find this world view too =
forlorn.  William James, although sympathetic to religious beliefs and =
emotions, called those willing to accept the empirical method the 'tough =
minded'; the others he called 'tender minded'.

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Philosophers have argued over the points raised above for centuries and =
will probably do so as long as there is humankind.

=20

In the real world it is impossible for an individual to test all =
knowledge claims.  One must rely on the observations of others, for =
example.  One must hope that what those knowledgeable about that which =
is beyond one's observation and/or reasoning are being truthful and =
circumspect.  Such is not always the case.

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Another aspect of the method described above that makes many =
uncomfortable is the somewhat negative aspect in which the process =
unfolds.  It is not possible to prove a hypothesis.  Further =
observations may call for revisions of theories and hypothesis.  For =
example, since I was a child, hypotheses about the ultimate structure of =
matter have changed (once drastically) and been revised many times and =
probably will continue to be changed and revised.  However, a theory or =
hypothesis can be falsified - if a confirmed observation contradicts an =
expected observation deduced from the theory, then the theory is false =
and needs to be modified or discarded. =20

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The growth of knowledge progresses in large part through the =
falsification of previously held knowledge.

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Practically speaking, one places one's hope in those that have =
demonstrated that their knowledge actually applies:  those that can land =
persons on the moon; those that can build, guide, and manipulate a =
machine that lands on Mars so as to send to us to be displayed on our =
TV's pictures of the Martian landscape; those that can successfully =
transplant a heart from one human to another; those that can =
successfully treat certain kinds of mental illness.

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Warning about the Method

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It would be a mistake to think the above method and people applying them =
are infallible.  Mistakes will most probably always be made, sometimes =
intentionally.  However, the method is self-correcting - mistakes are =
generally corrected over time.

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It is also interesting to note that the Rules of Evidence used in most =
western justice systems follow the above method quite closely.

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It would be a mistake to say that the method described above is the =
end-all.  It is impossible to predict everything that the future may =
bring.  Newer, more fruitful, wider encompassing methods may some day =
emerge.

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Until that time, however, I will stick to what has successfully worked =
and which can be verified.

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Application to Religious, Ethical Questions

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For the purpose or this short note, superstitious beliefs include those =
that assert or depend on the existence of some supernatural being having =
at least the power of quasi-conscious thought or purpose.  Hence =
superstition includes almost all religions, witchcraft, voodoo, etc.  =
There are other kinds of superstitious beliefs but these are not =
relevant to the present narrowed focus.

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There is a multitude of knowledge claims whose probable truth has =
already been decided using the method briefly outlined above:  =
properties of material, levers, sound, and electricity; of how people =
and groups of people can be expected to behave in certain situations, =
etc.  There is probably a greater multitude of further probabilities to =
be discovered in the future.

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There is little disagreement over the behavior of gases under pressure, =
the general composition of human blood, the cause and methods of =
transmission of measles, the number of square feet in Lot 1 of the Marx =
Subdivision, how a person would react if poked with a hot poker, how a =
mother bear would react when her cubs are threatened, etc.  There is =
little disagreement over these matters because there is a tested, =
successful method for resolving such disagreements - applied logic and =
observation.

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Religion

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Applying the above analysis to that subset of the superstitious (as =
defined above) called religion reveals problems not found in the pursuit =
of everyday applied knowledge or scientific knowledge.

=20

There are tens of thousands of different religions each holding dogma =
contradictory to each of the other religions.  If individual nuances are =
considered then there are probably billions of such mutually =
contradictory religious beliefs.  Given the existence of this multitude =
of mutually contradictory religions, only one religion, if any, can be =
true.  It is logically possible, and some think quite probable, that =
none of them are true.

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Again, applying the logical consistency, etc. tests described above it =
is quite clear that some religions are patently false.  Those religions =
that contain direct or derivable contractions are false.  Those that =
contain derivable absurdities or gross improbabilities are most likely =
false.  (If you have worked out the exercise of the engenderment of =
Jesus given above, you will see the point.)

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The most damning problem of religious disagreements is that there is no =
accepted or successful, tested method for resolving the truth of =
knowledge claims based on the existence of supernatural beings.  If =
there were, there would be a universally believed religion. However, the =
number of different religions in the world continues to grow.  The =
number of different Christian sects and cults, the number of different =
Christian theologies, and the number of different scholarly Christian =
interpretations of and arguments about the content of the New Testament =
and related documents continues to grow not abate.

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In each different religion or sub-religion (sects and cults) there can =
be found individuals which rabidly believe that their religion is =
absolutely right and everyone else's is wrong - witness the Christ =
Church cult's recent advertisements in the local print media.  It clear =
from the above analysis that the majority, if not all, of these rabid =
believers, are wrong.

=20

The above point of view was succinctly summarized in the February 2004 =
issue of Discover Magazine in an article on diet and nutrition:  =
"Nutrition used to be like religion.  Everyone said, I have the truth, =
everyone else is wrong."

=20

Intensely holding any belief, religious or not, in the face of =
contradictions or in the face of the lack of cogent evidence or even the =
possibility of cogent evidence is a delusion.  Clinical psychologists =
have names for the various forms and symptoms of these delusions.  Among =
them are defense mechanisms.  All people use various defense mechanisms =
for short periods of time.  When defense mechanisms are intensely used =
over a long period of time they become pathological, especially if such =
delusions are used to proscribe other people's behavior or produce in =
the deluded self-limiting, self-defeating behavior.

=20

Before various cultists bombard me with angry, irrational emails, cards =
and letters, the above does not absolutely assert that there is no =
religious truth.  There might be.  At this time there is no successfully =
tested, accepted method to determine the truth of superstitious =
including supernatural religious knowledge claims.  In simpler terms, if =
there is a religious truth, at present there is no way we can know that =
particular religious belief is the truth.  In the future, as discussed =
below, there might possibly (but not probably) be a method for =
determination.

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Application to Ethics

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>From that given above it should be clear that relying on knowledge =
claims about alleged supernatural beings and/or their alleged assertions =
is very risky business especially when trying decided how to act =
(ethical matters).  There is no way at present to tell if such reliance =
is based on truth.  Given the large number of different mutually =
contradictory religions, most likely any reliance on the supernatural =
based claims asserted by these religion would be misplaced and false.

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On what basis then should we decide to act?

=20

I cannot give a complete, convincing answer.  It is much easier to =
demonstrate hypotheses that must be discarded because of various =
irremediable errors than to discover a better hypothesis.  However, =
removing chaff is an essential part of the knowledge seeking process.

=20

Philosophers have argued the validity of many diverse ethical systems =
for centuries.  It is unlikely that I can solve this complex, but =
important puzzle.  It may well be a puzzle without a definite, true =
solution.

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Despite my ignorance, a number of suggestions can be made.

=20

The most important suggestion is this:  the scientific method as briefly =
described above in itself, as so far practiced, is not the complete =
answer, as far as we can tell at this point in the development of =
humankind.

=20

However, the fruits of verified knowledge produced by science and =
ordinary everyday observations can and should directly influence ethical =
decisions:

=20

Obvious Examples:

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Most of us in the western world longer not treat mental illness as the =
possession by demons.  We try to find natural causes and attempt to =
treat those suffering with such afflictions using the knowledge we have =
so far gained.

=20

We no longer isolate and despoil the lives of those with leprosy.

=20

We no longer believe that gonorrhea in a male is caused by urinating in =
the moonlight and thus provide proper treatment rather than severely =
flailing the afflicted member with a willow branch.

=20

A majority of us no longer believe that blacks are inferior biologically =
and/or mentally and thus don't forbid or attempt to deny blacks from =
pursuing the beneficial goals that whites are allowed to pursue.

=20

If a child loves her mother, and her mother is murdered, the child will =
suffer.

=20

Just as scientific knowledge evolves, it appears that ethical knowledge =
does also, in part because of the advance in scientific knowledge, =
although at a much slower and much more erratic, sometimes back-tracking =
pace.

=20

If there is answer to the question of what method is correct one for =
making ethical decisions, that method will most likely include using =
verified knowledge, not ignorance and superstition, when making ethical =
decisions.

=20

Another important point about constructing an ethical system is the =
absurdity of promulgating the view that ethical matters should be based =
on superstition, including religion.

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In the first place, there is voluminous literature in the field of =
anthropology which seems to convincingly demonstrate that the ethical =
beliefs of every religion studied first evolved because of practical, =
earthly reasons existing at the time and place of their creation, i.e. =
the ethical beliefs were based on what was believed about the world at =
that time and the practical consequences of actions in that world.  Such =
strictures were then embedded in religions under various guises to gain =
enforcement power.

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Times, conditions, and knowledge have changed.  (The reader may end the =
ellipsis.)

=20

Second, to tell people how to live their lives, to tell them whom they =
can or cannot love, and/or marry and share their life with, to limit the =
social, economic, political, leadership, or spiritual aspirations of =
people based on their gender, race, social status, or sexual orientation =
because of some unverifiable superstitions is nothing short of a huge =
fraud deriving many of the duped of some of the best fruits available in =
life.

=20

It is also a huge fraud to fleece money from people having deep needs, =
some of which can be partly satisfied by religious offerings no matter =
how fallacious or by other more honest means.  In extreme cases the =
desire of certain religious professionals to control, manipulate, seize =
power, etc. based on their charismatically asserted but unverifiable =
superstitions, superstitions which in many respects are contradictory to =
that of most other religious professionals and the majority of the =
believers in the world, exemplifies extremely undesirable, pathological =
behavior.

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Is this the Final Answer?

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Is it possible for an empiricist to believe in a higher being and to =
base her/his ethics on such a belief?

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Yes, it is possible.

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It does not take a great deal of imagination to think of future =
observations which, if made, would greatly increase the probability of =
the existence of a higher being.  To date these observations have not =
been made, but they remain a possibility, probably quite remote.  If =
anything, empiricism argues that knowledge is not certain; that future =
observations may force a revision of even the most tightly held =
hypotheses.

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Answers to Possible Responders

=20

To some the issues discussed briefly above are important and heady =
issues.  If there are some responses to this long, probably very boring =
essay, under certain conditions I will try to respond.

=20

First, I will not respond to any issue-based off-list communication.  If =
you wish to disagree (or agree), do it on-list where everyone who is =
interested can participate.  If you send me off-list material, I will =
post on-list.

=20

My time is limited, so I will only respond to those who raise particular =
points relevant to those issues addressed above - one point per =
communication only!.  Please don't send me a list of questions.  =
Disagree and argue for your point of view on one issue per posting and =
please limit your postings in a particular time period.

=20

I won't respond to attempts to divert or sidetrack the issues discussed =
here.  Nor will I have time to answer all responses.  I am not running a =
philosophy department or a seminary for the confused.  Because of time =
limitations my responses will probably not be very timely.

=20

If you are interested in the issues discussed here both WSU and UI =
provide a wide assortment of philosophy courses which may help you =
understand what is being above discussed much better.

=20

Please do not sign me up for tons of religious spam as happened several =
months ago when a similar discussion took place.

=20

To those of you that have read this far:  thank you for your =
consideration.

----- Original Message -----=20
From: "Edna Wilmington" <edwilming@yahoo.com>
To: "Art Deco" <deco@moscow.com>; <vision2020@moscow.com>
Sent: Sunday, January 18, 2004 5:00 PM
Subject: Re: [Vision2020] Is there a correct interpretation of the =
bible?

> Forum Members,
>=20
> In one of his recent posts, Mr. Wayne Fox pointed out
> the absence of a universally accepted method of
> biblical interpretation.  Consequently, he wrote,
> there are numerous Biblical interpretations and
> thousands of different Christian denominations.  These
> facts are indisputable.
>=20
> Mr. Fox implies that this state of affairs with
> respect to Christians demonstrates that: (a) No sound
> Biblical hermeneutic exists; (b) The moral
> propositions in the Bible, being self-contradictory,
> are unreliable; (c) Thus, no coherent body of
> Christian moral truth exists; therefore, it follows
> that (d) Believers in the Christian faith, regardless
> of theological persuasion, are superstitious fools and
> should be considered an irrelevant intellectual,
> social, and political constituency.  If Mr. Fox
> disagrees with this summary of his positions, I kindly
> request that he explain how it should be corrected.=20
> Otherwise, let's assume for the sake of discussion
> that Mr. Fox is correct and that with regard to
> determining moral rectitude, the Christians have it
> all wrong.
>=20
> Mr. Fox's post also implies that a universally
> accepted (non-Christian and/or non-"religious") method
> of determining moral/ethical truth does in fact exist,
> and in spite of their not being moral/ethical
> questions, he cites the examples of determining the
> specific gravity of zinc or the cause of measles.=20
> Thus, as it pertains to suggesting a
> preferable/reliable method for determining
> moral/ethical truth, Mr. Fox seems to refer his
> readers to the scientific method or methodological
> naturalism.  Again, if Mr. Fox disagrees with this
> summary of his position, I would kindly ask that he
> provide correction or clarification where necessary.
>=20
> I hope Mr. Fox will be willing to answer the following
> questions, which I pose with a sincere desire for fair
> discussion:
>=20
> 1.  Does Mr. Fox repudiate all religious notions of
> truth and thereby all religious groups, or does he
> only reject Christians and their epistemological
> system?
>=20
> 2.  If Mr. Fox doesn't reject all religious people as
> superstitious fools, but only rejects a subset of
> them, what standard or procedure does he recommend for
> determining who's a fool and who isn't?
>=20
> 3.  Does Mr. Fox believe that a universally applicable
> body of moral/ethical truth exists (i.e. without
> regard to time and place)?
>=20
> 4.  What does it mean to describe a method of
> determining moral/ethical truth as "universally
> accepted?"
>=20
> 5.  Does a particular method of determining
> moral/ethical truth require universal acceptance in
> order to yield valid results?
>=20
> 6.  What method of determining truth should human
> beings apply to moral/ethical questions?  A brief
> procedural outline would be helpful.
>=20
> 7.  Please provide an example of how the method cited
> in Question 6 works to identify moral/ethical goods:=20
> For example, suppose we can agree that the
> firefighters in New York City, who lost their lives on
> Sept. 11th, 2001, performed a morally good deed in
> their partly unsuccessful attempt to rescue people
> trapped in the World Trade Center.  If we can agree
> thusly, please explain how the correct method of
> determining moral uprightness works in this case.  If
> Mr. Fox doesn't agree that the NYFD rescuers who
> perished performed a morally good deed by their
> efforts to save the trapped people who also perished,
> perhaps he would be willing to suggest an alternative
> case to consider.
>=20
> 8.  Would a common body of moral/ethical truth
> necessarily result from consistent and universal
> application of the method cited in Question 6?
>=20
> 9.  Would Mr. Fox prefer and consider it beneficial
> for all of humanity to employ the method cited in
> Question 6?
>=20
> 10.  If the answer to Question 9 is "yes," does Mr.
> Fox's want the truth test(s) he advocates promulgated
> via public education systems and advanced, funded,
> and/or enforced via political systems?
>=20
> Edna Wilmington
>=20
>=20
> --- Art Deco <deco@moscow.com> wrote:
>=20
> > Unlike the problem of finding the specific gravity
> > of zinc or what causes
> > measles, there is no widely accepted, convincing way
> > of establishing the
> > truth of any interpretation of the bible.  If there
> > were, then there would
> > not be several thousand Christian sects and millions
> > of differing Christian
> > beliefs.
> >=20
> > Wayne Fox
>=20
> __________________________________
> Do you Yahoo!?
> Yahoo! Hotjobs: Enter the "Signing Bonus" Sweepstakes
> http://hotjobs.sweepstakes.yahoo.com/signingbonus
>=20
> _____________________________________________________
>  List services made available by First Step Internet,=20
>  serving the communities of the Palouse since 1994.  =20
>                http://www.fsr.net                      =20
>           mailto:Vision2020@moscow.com
> =
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>=20
> 
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<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>A person (or persons) =
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themselves(s) Edna Wilmington has stated what they believe is my =
position=20
regarding Christian beliefs and ethics.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
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size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Since her(?) =
characterization is=20
greatly in error, I offer a short, encapsulated view of my position, if =
anyone=20
is interested.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If you are not interested =
in logical=20
or epistemological discussions on religious issues, please hit the =
delete key=20
now, since without this interest much of what follows will be merely=20
boring.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>It may be boring =
even with=20
this interest.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: =
Verdana"><FONT=20
size=3D5>Knowledge Claims<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></B></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If anyone makes statements =
purporting=20
to be true and not intending to be fantasy, then those statements, =
whatever the=20
subject matter, are knowledge claims =96 that the substantive assertions =
made=20
about what is called the universe (in the broadest sense) are=20
true.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Whenever anyone makes a =
knowledge=20
claim, it doesn=92t follow that the claim is =
true.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT =
size=3D5>Examples:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>The moon is made of green=20
cheese.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>The present king of the =
United States=20
is 39 years old.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>As far as we can tell, it =
is very=20
improbable that the moon is made of green cheese.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>As far as I know there is no =
present=20
king of the United States.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Hence, whenever a =
knowledge claim is=20
made, the curious hearer or reader will try to test that claim for =
truth.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>In many cases, a complete test =
is=20
impossible because of the necessary background required is not possessed =
by the=20
tester, e.g., the average person would not be able without a great deal =
of time=20
and effort to decide whether the Fixed Point Theorem for Euclidean Space =
or=20
Fermat=92s Last Theorem is true.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>However, given many topics =
a patient,=20
open-minded knowledge claim tester may apply certain tests to the =
assertions of=20
that knowledge claim, some of which give answers which are probably =
definitive,=20
and others which might be helpful in determining the probability of the=20
knowledge claim=92s truth.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>A method given in steps =
which works=20
similarly to a sieve is given below.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: =
Verdana"><FONT=20
size=3D5>Logical Consistency<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></B></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT=20
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></B></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><U><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Direct=20
Contradictions<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></U></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If the set of statements =
in which the=20
knowledge claim (or belief) is stated contains a direct contradiction, =
then the=20
claim will be rejected as false.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; =
</SPAN>A=20
contradiction is a compound statement in which X and its negation not-X =
is=20
asserted.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT =
size=3D5>Example:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>John is 6 feet tall and =
John is not 6=20
feet tall.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Contradictions are always=20
false.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>In previous posts to =
Vision 2020 some=20
have argued for a variety of reasons that as far as religious statements =
go=20
contradictions are not fatal.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Until someone gives a =
credible example=20
of a contradiction that is not false, I will continue to believe they =
are always=20
false.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>I suspect that =
mentally=20
healthy people everywhere will do so also.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: =
yes">&nbsp;=20
</SPAN>Clinical psychologists call those who believe in contradictory =
statements=20
sufferers from compartmentalization.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><U><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Derivable=20
Contradictions<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></U></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>The next test for logical =
consistency=20
is to test for<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>derivable=20
contradictions, that is, a direct contradiction found by making =
deductions from=20
various statements in the knowledge claim at =
issue.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Suppose someone asserts =
that John is=20
exactly 46 years old and John is exactly 57 =
years.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If someone is exactly 47 =
years old,=20
then they are not exactly 57 years old by the very meaning of the terms =
used;=20
hence a contradiction occurs by asserting John is exactly 57 years old =
and John=20
is not exactly 57 years old.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If a knowledge claim =
contains a=20
derivable contradiction, then it is false.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>A more complicated, but =
well known=20
example of a derivable contradiction is the assertion the square root of =
two is=20
a rational number.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>Even =
with a=20
little bit of arithmetic knowledge and some patience, the curious reader =
can=20
show that this statement leads to a =
contradiction.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: =
Verdana"><FONT=20
size=3D5>Logical Fallacies<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></B></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Many knowledge claims =
contain=20
arguments for their truth embedded within the knowledge claim =
itself.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>Aside from containing false or =

unintelligible statements there are many ways an argument can be =
fallacious=20
because of its form.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT =
size=3D5>Example:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Everything in the universe =
has a=20
cause; therefore the universe has a cause.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: =
yes">&nbsp;=20
</SPAN>That cause is called God.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>This fallacy is called =
Ascribing the=20
Properties of the Part to the Whole.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>That this is fallacious =
argument form=20
can be seen by the following =
contra-examples:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Every block in the city of =
Fly Valley,=20
Utah is square; therefore the city of Fly Valley, Utah is=20
square.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Every application of =
pigment in=20
Cranston=92s =91Nude in an Olive Oil Factory=92 is circular; therefore =
Cranston=92s=20
painting is circular.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Among the most common =
logical=20
fallacies found in non-scientific knowledge claims is that of vagueness =
and/or=20
equivocation where words are so ill-defined that it is not clear what is =
being=20
asserted or where the same word is given different meanings, sometimes =
very=20
subtly.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>A person wishing to avoid =
being=20
hood-winked by specious knowledge claims would do well to absorb the =
material in=20
some good logic texts, particularly those with extensive sections and =
examples=20
of informal fallacies.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><FONT size=3D5><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: =
Verdana">Other=20
Logical Tests for Falsity</SPAN></B><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p></SPAN></FONT></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Provided a knowledge claim =
is=20
intelligible (see below), then further logical tests can be applied to =
it.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>If absurdities or grossly =
improbable=20
conclusions can be derived from the knowledge claim, then the claim =
becomes=20
extremely dubious.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Examples (the absurdities =
of which the=20
thoughtful reader can discover for themselves as an=20
exercise):<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Example=20
1:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Jesus is descended from =
David through=20
Joseph and (asserting in the same claim):<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Jesus is the product of an =
immaculate=20
(spermless) conception.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Example=20
2:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>It is possible to have =
some certain=20
knowledge of an all-powerful god.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: =
Verdana"><FONT=20
size=3D5>Intelligibility and =
Verifiability<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></B></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Some statements, though =
syntactically=20
correct, appear to lack intelligibility, that is, given the ordinary =
uses of the=20
words in which the statement is composed, it does not have a clearly=20
decipherable substantive meaning, although the combination of the words =
because=20
of their connotations may sometime evoke feelings, even strong=20
ones.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT =
size=3D5>Examples:<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>The square root of a minus =
jelly=20
cannibalizes rhetoric.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Calcium presides over=20
spontaneity.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>God is love.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>(Assuming the ordinary meaning =
of =91is=92=20
as identity.)<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Some care must be =
exercised when=20
deciding whether a statement is in fact unintelligible.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>Some statements which appear =
to be=20
unintelligible can have internal meaning within certain contextual=20
frameworks.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>One test applied in the =
scientific=20
world and generally in the mundane world is that a statement is =
unintelligible=20
if no testable statements can be derived from it, i.e., it is not =
possible to=20
describe what different observations would be made if the statement were =
true=20
from what observations would be made if the statement would be=20
false.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>If the knowledge claim at =
issue has=20
survived the above tests, then the last test is to deduce expected =
observations=20
from the claim and then see if, in fact, these observations occur.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>In the case of so-called real =
objects in=20
the universe, such observations are of various phenomena.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>In mathematics and logic, the=20
observations may be of the nature of deductions, examples, and/or=20
counter-examples.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>The above is a greatly =
simplified=20
description of the empirical method.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: =
yes">&nbsp;=20
</SPAN>Time limitations persuade me that those really interested can =
find a much=20
scholarly write-up in many different =
places.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Aside from the fact that =
such a view=20
eliminates a great deal of what people believe to be true, this view has =
a=20
serious problem for many people:<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; =

using this method, knowledge is not certain but possessed of =
various=20
degrees of probability.&nbsp; =
The=20
statements asserted by applied physics generally carry a very high=20
probability.&nbsp; Many =
hypotheses=20
asserted by economists, political scientists, or social psychologist may =
carry a=20
much lower probability.&nbsp; =
Some people=20
find this world view too forlorn.&nbsp;=20
William James, although sympathetic to religious beliefs and =
emotions,=20
called those willing to accept the empirical method the =91tough =
minded=92; the=20
others he called =91tender minded=92.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Philosophers have argued =
over the=20
points raised above for centuries and will probably do so as long as =
there is=20
humankind.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">In the real world it is =
impossible for=20
an individual to test all knowledge claims.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; One must rely on the =
observations of=20
others, for example.&nbsp; One =
must hope=20
that what those knowledgeable about that which is beyond one=92s =
observation=20
and/or reasoning are being truthful and circumspect.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Such is not always the=20
case.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Another aspect of the =
method described=20
above that makes many uncomfortable is the somewhat negative aspect in =
which the=20
process unfolds.&nbsp; It is =
not possible=20
to prove a hypothesis.&nbsp; =
Further=20
observations may call for revisions of theories and hypothesis.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; For example, since I was a =
child,=20
hypotheses about the ultimate structure of matter have changed (once=20
drastically) and been revised many times and probably will continue to =
be=20
changed and revised.&nbsp; =
However, a=20
theory or hypothesis can be falsified =96 if a confirmed observation =
contradicts=20
an expected observation deduced from the theory, then the theory is =
false and=20
needs to be modified or discarded.&nbsp;=20
<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">The growth of knowledge =
progresses in=20
large part through the falsification of previously held=20
knowledge.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Practically speaking, one =
places one=92s=20
hope in those that have demonstrated that their knowledge actually =
applies:=20
&nbsp;those that can land =
persons on the=20
moon; those that can build, guide, and manipulate a machine that lands =
on Mars=20
so as to send to us to be displayed on our TV=92s pictures of the =
Martian=20
landscape; those that can successfully transplant a heart from one human =
to=20
another; those that can successfully treat certain kinds of mental=20
illness.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal">Warning=20
about the Method<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">It would be a mistake to =
think the=20
above method and people applying them are infallible.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Mistakes will most probably =
always be=20
made, sometimes intentionally.&nbsp;=20
However, the method is self-correcting =96 mistakes are generally =
corrected=20
over time.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">It is also interesting to =
note that=20
the Rules of Evidence used in most western justice systems follow the =
above=20
method quite closely.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">It would be a mistake to =
say that the=20
method described above is the end-all.&nbsp;=20
It is impossible to predict everything that the future may =
bring.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Newer, more fruitful, wider =
encompassing=20
methods may some day emerge.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Until that time, however, =
I will stick=20
to what has successfully worked and which can be=20
verified.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Application to Religious, Ethical=20
Questions<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">For the purpose or this =
short note,=20
superstitious beliefs include those that assert or depend on the =
existence of=20
some supernatural being having at least the power of quasi-conscious =
thought or=20
purpose.&nbsp; Hence =
superstition=20
includes almost all religions, witchcraft, voodoo, etc.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; There are other kinds of =
superstitious=20
beliefs but these are not relevant to the present narrowed=20
focus.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">There is a multitude of =
knowledge=20
claims whose probable truth has already been decided using the method =
briefly=20
outlined above:&nbsp; =
properties of=20
material, levers, sound, and electricity; of how people and groups of =
people can=20
be expected to behave in certain situations, etc.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; There is probably a greater =
multitude of=20
further probabilities to be discovered in the=20
future.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">There is little =
disagreement over the=20
behavior of gases under pressure, the general composition of human =
blood, the=20
cause and methods of transmission of measles, the number of square feet =
in Lot 1=20
of the Marx Subdivision, how a person would react if poked with a hot =
poker, how=20
a mother bear would react when her cubs are threatened, etc.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; There is little disagreement =
over these=20
matters because there is a tested, successful method for resolving such=20
disagreements =96 applied logic and =
observation.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><FONT=20
size=3D5>Religion<o:p></o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT=20
size=3D5>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Applying the above =
analysis to that=20
subset of the superstitious (as defined above) called religion reveals =
problems=20
not found in the pursuit of everyday applied knowledge or scientific=20
knowledge.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">There are tens of =
thousands of=20
different religions each holding dogma contradictory to each of the =
other=20
religions.&nbsp; If individual =
nuances=20
are considered then there are probably billions of such mutually =
contradictory=20
religious beliefs. &nbsp;<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal">Given the existence of this =
multitude of=20
mutually contradictory religions, only one religion, <I=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-style: normal">if any, can be =
true.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; It is logically possible, and =
some think=20
quite probable, that none of them are true.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Again, applying the =
logical=20
consistency, etc. tests described above it is quite clear that some =
religions=20
are patently false.&nbsp; Those =
religions=20
that contain direct or derivable contractions are false.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Those that contain derivable =
absurdities=20
or gross improbabilities are most likely false.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; (If you have worked out the =
exercise of=20
the engenderment of Jesus given above, you will see the=20
point.)<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">The most damning problem =
of religious=20
disagreements is that there is no accepted or successful, tested method =
for=20
resolving the truth of knowledge claims based on the existence of =
supernatural=20
beings.&nbsp; If there were, =
there would=20
be a universally believed religion. However, the number of different =
religions=20
in the world continues to grow.&nbsp; =
The=20
number of different Christian sects and cults, the number of different =
Christian=20
theologies, and the number of different scholarly Christian =
interpretations of=20
and arguments about the content of the New Testament and related =
documents=20
continues to grow not abate.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">In each different religion =
or=20
sub-religion (sects and cults) there can be found individuals which =
rabidly=20
believe that their religion is absolutely right and everyone else=92s is =
wrong =96=20
witness the Christ Church cult=92s recent advertisements in the local =
print=20
media.&nbsp; It clear from the =
above=20
analysis that the majority, if not all, of these rabid believers, are=20
wrong.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">The above point of view =
was succinctly=20
summarized in the February 2004 issue of <I=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-style: normal">Discover Magazine in an =
article on diet=20
and nutrition:&nbsp; =
=93Nutrition used to=20
be like religion.&nbsp; =
Everyone said, I=20
have the truth, everyone else is wrong.=94<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Intensely holding any =
belief,=20
religious or not, in the face of contradictions or in the face of the =
lack of=20
cogent evidence or even the possibility of cogent evidence is a =
delusion.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Clinical psychologists have =
names for=20
the various forms and symptoms of these delusions.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Among them are defense =
mechanisms.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; All people use various defense =

mechanisms for short periods of time.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: =
yes">&nbsp;=20
</SPAN>When defense mechanisms are intensely used over a long period of =
time=20
they become pathological, especially if such delusions are used to =
proscribe=20
other people=92s behavior or produce in the deluded self-limiting, =
self-defeating=20
behavior.<o:p></o:p></FONT></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p><FONT =
size=3D5>&nbsp;</FONT></o:p></SPAN></P>
<P class=3DMsoNormal style=3D"MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><FONT size=3D5>Before various cultists =
bombard me=20
with angry, irrational emails, cards and letters, the above does not =
absolutely=20
assert that there is no religious truth.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: =
yes">&nbsp;=20
</SPAN>There might be.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>At =
this time=20
there is no successfully tested, accepted method to determine the truth =
of=20
superstitious including supernatural religious knowledge claims.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>In simpler terms, if there is =
a=20
religious truth, at present there is no way we can <B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal">know</B> that particular =
religious belief=20
is the truth.<SPAN style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </SPAN>In the =
future, as=20
discussed below, there might possibly (but not probably) be a method for =

determination.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Application to Ethics<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">From that given above it =
should be=20
clear that relying on knowledge claims about alleged supernatural beings =
and/or=20
their alleged assertions is very risky business especially when trying =
decided=20
how to act (ethical matters).&nbsp; =
There=20
is no way at present to tell if such reliance is based on truth.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Given the large number of =
different=20
mutually contradictory religions, most likely any reliance on the =
supernatural=20
based claims asserted by these religion would be misplaced and=20
false.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">On what basis then should =
we decide to=20
act?<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">I cannot give a complete, =
convincing=20
answer.&nbsp; It is much easier =
to=20
demonstrate hypotheses that must be discarded because of various =
irremediable=20
errors than to discover a better hypothesis.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; However, removing chaff is an =
essential=20
part of the knowledge seeking process.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Philosophers have argued =
the validity=20
of many diverse ethical systems for centuries.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; It is unlikely that I can =
solve this=20
complex, but important puzzle.&nbsp; =
It=20
may well be a puzzle without a definite, true=20
solution.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Despite my ignorance, a =
number of=20
suggestions can be made.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">The most important =
suggestion is this:=20
&nbsp;the scientific method as =
briefly=20
described above in itself, as so far practiced, is not the complete =
answer, as=20
far as we can tell at this point in the development of=20
humankind.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">However, the fruits of =
verified=20
knowledge produced by science and ordinary everyday observations can and =
should=20
directly influence ethical decisions:<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Obvious=20
Examples:<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Most of us in the western =
world longer=20
not treat mental illness as the possession by demons.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; We try to find natural causes =
and=20
attempt to treat those suffering with such afflictions using the =
knowledge we=20
have so far gained.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">We no longer isolate and =
despoil the=20
lives of those with leprosy.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">We no longer believe that =
gonorrhea in=20
a male is caused by urinating in the moonlight and thus provide proper =
treatment=20
rather than severely flailing the afflicted member with a willow=20
branch.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">A majority of us no longer =
believe=20
that blacks are inferior biologically and/or mentally and thus don=92t =
forbid or=20
attempt to deny blacks from pursuing the beneficial goals that whites =
are=20
allowed to pursue.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">If a child loves her =
mother, and her=20
mother is murdered, the child will suffer.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Just as scientific =
knowledge evolves,=20
it appears that ethical knowledge does also, in part because of the =
advance in=20
scientific knowledge, although at a much slower and much more erratic, =
sometimes=20
back-tracking pace.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">If there is answer to the =
question of=20
what method is correct one for making ethical decisions, that method =
will most=20
likely include using verified knowledge, not ignorance and superstition, =
when=20
making ethical decisions.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Another important point =
about=20
constructing an ethical system is the absurdity of promulgating the view =
that=20
ethical matters should be based on superstition, including=20
religion.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">In the first place, there =
is=20
voluminous literature in the field of anthropology which seems to =
convincingly=20
demonstrate that the ethical beliefs of every religion studied first =
evolved=20
because of practical, earthly reasons existing at the time and place of =
their=20
creation, i.e. the ethical beliefs were based on what was believed about =
the=20
world at that time and the practical consequences of actions in that =
world.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Such strictures were then =
embedded in=20
religions under various guises to gain enforcement=20
power.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Times, conditions, and =
knowledge have=20
changed=85 &nbsp;(The reader =
may end the=20
ellipsis.)<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Second, to tell people how =
to live=20
their lives, to tell them whom they can or cannot love, and/or marry and =
share=20
their life with, to limit the social, economic, political, leadership, =
or=20
spiritual aspirations of people based on their gender, race, social =
status, or=20
sexual orientation because of some unverifiable superstitions is nothing =
short=20
of a huge fraud deriving many of the duped of some of the best fruits =
available=20
in life.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">It is also a huge fraud to =
fleece=20
money from people having deep needs, some of which can be partly =
satisfied by=20
religious offerings no matter how fallacious or by other more honest =
means.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; In extreme cases the desire of =
certain=20
religious professionals to control, manipulate, seize power, etc. based =
on their=20
charismatically asserted but unverifiable superstitions, superstitions =
which in=20
many respects are contradictory to that of most other religious =
professionals=20
and the majority of the believers in the world, exemplifies extremely=20
undesirable, pathological behavior.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal">Is this=20
the Final Answer?<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Is it possible for an =
empiricist to=20
believe in a higher being and to base her/his ethics on such a=20
belief?<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Yes, it is=20
possible.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">It does not take a great =
deal of=20
imagination to think of future observations which, if made, would =
greatly=20
increase the probability of the existence of a higher being.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; To date these observations =
have not been=20
made, but they remain a possibility, probably quite remote.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; If anything, empiricism argues =
that=20
knowledge is not certain; that future observations may force a revision =
of even=20
the most tightly held hypotheses.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<B=20
style=3D"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal">Answers=20
to Possible Responders<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">To some the issues =
discussed briefly=20
above are important and heady issues.&nbsp;=20
If there are some responses to this long, probably very boring =
essay,=20
under certain conditions I will try to =
respond.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">First, I will not respond =
to any=20
issue-based off-list communication.&nbsp;=20
If you wish to disagree (or agree), do it on-list where everyone =
who is=20
interested can participate.&nbsp; =
If you=20
send me off-list material, I will post =
on-list.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">My time is limited, so I =
will only=20
respond to those who raise particular points relevant to those issues =
addressed=20
above =96 one point per communication only!.&nbsp;=20
Please don=92t send me a list of questions.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; Disagree and argue for your =
point of=20
view on one issue per posting and please limit your postings in a =
particular=20
time period.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">I won=92t respond to =
attempts to divert=20
or sidetrack the issues discussed here.&nbsp;=20
Nor will I have time to answer all responses.<SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; I am not running a philosophy =
department=20
or a seminary for the confused. <SPAN=20
style=3D"mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;Because of time limitations my =
responses=20
will probably not be very timely.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">If you are interested in =
the issues=20
discussed here both WSU and UI provide a wide assortment of philosophy =
courses=20
which may help you understand what is being above discussed much=20
better.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">Please do not sign me up =
for tons of=20
religious spam as happened several months ago when a similar discussion =
took=20
place.<o:p></o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana"><o:p>&nbsp;</o:p>
<SPAN=20
style=3D"FONT-FAMILY: Verdana">To those of you that have =
read this=20
far: &nbsp;thank you for your=20
consideration.<o:p></o:p></DIV>
<DIV>----- Original Message ----- =

<DIV>From: "Edna Wilmington" =
&lt;<A=20
href=3D"mailto:edwilming@yahoo.com">edwilming@yahoo.com</A>&gt;</DIV>
<DIV>To: "Art Deco" &lt;<A=20
href=3D"mailto:deco@moscow.com">deco@moscow.com</A>&gt;;=20
&lt;<A href=3D"mailto:vision2020@moscow.com">vision2020@moscow.com</A>&gt;</DIV>
<DIV>Sent: Sunday, January 18, 2004 =
5:00=20
PM</DIV>
<DIV>Subject: Re: [Vision2020] Is =
there a=20
correct interpretation of the bible?</DIV></DIV>
<DIV> </DIV><FONT=20
face=3D"Arial Narrow" size=3D2>&gt; Forum Members, &gt; &gt; In =
one of his=20
recent posts, Mr. Wayne Fox pointed out &gt; the absence of a =
universally=20
accepted method of &gt; biblical interpretation.&nbsp; Consequently, =
he=20
wrote, &gt; there are numerous Biblical interpretations and &gt; =
thousands=20
of different Christian denominations.&nbsp; These &gt; facts are=20
indisputable. &gt; &gt; Mr. Fox implies that this state of =
affairs=20
with &gt; respect to Christians demonstrates that: (a) No =
sound &gt;=20
Biblical hermeneutic exists; (b) The moral &gt; propositions in the =
Bible,=20
being self-contradictory, &gt; are unreliable; (c) Thus, no coherent =
body=20
of &gt; Christian moral truth exists; therefore, it follows &gt; =
that (d)=20
Believers in the Christian faith, regardless &gt; of theological =
persuasion,=20
are superstitious fools and &gt; should be considered an irrelevant=20
intellectual, &gt; social, and political constituency.&nbsp; If Mr.=20
Fox &gt; disagrees with this summary of his positions, I =
kindly &gt;=20
request that he explain how it should be corrected. &gt; Otherwise, =
let's=20
assume for the sake of discussion &gt; that Mr. Fox is correct and =
that with=20
regard to &gt; determining moral rectitude, the Christians have =
it &gt;=20
all wrong. &gt; &gt; Mr. Fox's post also implies that a=20
universally &gt; accepted (non-Christian and/or non-"religious")=20
method &gt; of determining moral/ethical truth does in fact =
exist, &gt;=20
and in spite of their not being moral/ethical &gt; questions, he =
cites the=20
examples of determining the &gt; specific gravity of zinc or the =
cause of=20
measles. &gt; Thus, as it pertains to suggesting a &gt;=20
preferable/reliable method for determining &gt; moral/ethical truth, =
Mr. Fox=20
seems to refer his &gt; readers to the scientific method or=20
methodological &gt; naturalism.&nbsp; Again, if Mr. Fox disagrees =
with=20
this &gt; summary of his position, I would kindly ask that he &gt; =
provide=20
correction or clarification where necessary. &gt; &gt; I hope Mr. =
Fox=20
will be willing to answer the following &gt; questions, which I pose =
with a=20
sincere desire for fair &gt; discussion: &gt; &gt; 1.&nbsp; =
Does Mr.=20
Fox repudiate all religious notions of &gt; truth and thereby all =
religious=20
groups, or does he &gt; only reject Christians and their=20
epistemological &gt; system? &gt; &gt; 2.&nbsp; If Mr. Fox =
doesn't=20
reject all religious people as &gt; superstitious fools, but only =
rejects a=20
subset of &gt; them, what standard or procedure does he recommend =
for &gt;=20
determining who's a fool and who isn't? &gt; &gt; 3.&nbsp; Does =
Mr. Fox=20
believe that a universally applicable &gt; body of moral/ethical =
truth exists=20
(i.e. without &gt; regard to time and place)? &gt; &gt; =
4.&nbsp; What=20
does it mean to describe a method of &gt; determining moral/ethical =
truth as=20
"universally &gt; accepted?" &gt; &gt; 5.&nbsp; Does a =
particular=20
method of determining &gt; moral/ethical truth require universal =
acceptance=20
in &gt; order to yield valid results? &gt; &gt; 6.&nbsp; What =
method=20
of determining truth should human &gt; beings apply to moral/ethical=20
questions?&nbsp; A brief &gt; procedural outline would be =
helpful. &gt;=20
 &gt; 7.&nbsp; Please provide an example of how the method =
cited &gt; in=20
Question 6 works to identify moral/ethical goods: &gt; For example, =
suppose=20
we can agree that the &gt; firefighters in New York City, who lost =
their=20
lives on &gt; Sept. 11th, 2001, performed a morally good deed =
in &gt;=20
their partly unsuccessful attempt to rescue people &gt; trapped in =
the World=20
Trade Center.&nbsp; If we can agree &gt; thusly, please explain how =
the=20
correct method of &gt; determining moral uprightness works in this=20
case.&nbsp; If &gt; Mr. Fox doesn't agree that the NYFD rescuers =
who &gt;=20
perished performed a morally good deed by their &gt; efforts to save =
the=20
trapped people who also perished, &gt; perhaps he would be willing to =
suggest=20
an alternative &gt; case to consider. &gt; &gt; 8.&nbsp; Would =
a=20
common body of moral/ethical truth &gt; necessarily result from =
consistent=20
and universal &gt; application of the method cited in Question =
6? &gt;=20
 &gt; 9.&nbsp; Would Mr. Fox prefer and consider it =
beneficial &gt; for=20
all of humanity to employ the method cited in &gt; Question =
6? &gt;=20
 &gt; 10.&nbsp; If the answer to Question 9 is "yes," does =
Mr. &gt; Fox's=20
want the truth test(s) he advocates promulgated &gt; via public =
education=20
systems and advanced, funded, &gt; and/or enforced via political=20
systems? &gt; &gt; Edna Wilmington &gt; &gt; &gt; --- =
Art Deco=20
&lt;<A href=3D"mailto:deco@moscow.com">deco@moscow.com</A>&gt;=20
wrote: &gt; &gt; &gt; Unlike the problem of finding the specific=20
gravity &gt; &gt; of zinc or what causes &gt; &gt; measles, there =
is no=20
widely accepted, convincing way &gt; &gt; of establishing the &gt; =
&gt;=20
truth of any interpretation of the bible.&nbsp; If there &gt; &gt; =
were, then=20
there would &gt; &gt; not be several thousand Christian sects and=20
millions &gt; &gt; of differing Christian &gt; &gt; =
beliefs. &gt; &gt;=20
 &gt; &gt; Wayne Fox &gt; &gt;=20
__________________________________ &gt; Do you Yahoo!? &gt; Yahoo! =

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