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<span class="" title="2013-08-24T14:35:08+00:00">August 24, 2013, <span>2:35 pm</span></span>
<h3 class="">How Technology Wrecks the Middle Class</h3>
<address class="">By <a href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/author/david-h-autor-and-david-dorn/" class="" title="See all posts by DAVID H. AUTOR AND DAVID DORN">DAVID H. AUTOR AND DAVID DORN</a></address>
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<p>In the four years since the Great Recession officially ended, the
productivity of American workers — those lucky enough to have jobs — has
risen smartly. But the United States still has two million fewer jobs
than before the downturn, the unemployment rate is stuck at levels not
seen since the early 1990s and the proportion of adults who are working
is four percentage points off its peak in 2000.</p><p>This job drought
has spurred pundits to wonder whether a profound employment sickness has
overtaken us. And from there, it’s only a short leap to ask whether
that illness isn’t productivity itself. Have we mechanized and
computerized ourselves into obsolescence?</p><p>Are we in danger of losing the “race against the machine,” as the M.I.T. scholars <a href="http://digital.mit.edu/erik/">Erik Brynjolfsson</a> and <a href="http://andrewmcafee.org/">Andrew McAfee</a> argue in a recent book? Are we becoming enslaved to our <a href="http://www.motherjones.com/media/2013/05/robots-artificial-intelligence-jobs-automation">“robot overlords,”</a>
as the journalist Kevin Drum warned in Mother Jones? Do “smart
machines” threaten us with “long-term misery,” as the economists Jeffrey
D. Sachs and Laurence J. Kotlikoff <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w18629">prophesied</a> earlier this year? Have we reached “the end of labor,” as Noah Smith <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/01/the-end-of-labor-how-to-protect-workers-from-the-rise-of-robots/267135/">laments</a> in The Atlantic?</p>
<p>Of
course, anxiety, and even hysteria, about the adverse effects of
technological change on employment have a venerable history. In the
early 19th century a group of English textile artisans calling
themselves the Luddites staged a machine-trashing rebellion. Their
brashness earned them a place (rarely positive) in the lexicon, but they
had legitimate reasons for concern.</p><p>Economists have historically
rejected what we call the “lump of labor” fallacy: the supposition that
an increase in labor productivity inevitably reduces employment because
there is only a finite amount of work to do. While intuitively
appealing, this idea is demonstrably false. In 1900, for example, 41
percent of the United States work force was in agriculture. By 2000,
that share had fallen to 2 percent, after the Green Revolution
transformed crop yields. But the employment-to-population ratio rose
over the 20th century as women moved from home to market, and the
unemployment rate fluctuated cyclically, with no long-term increase.</p><p>Labor-saving
technological change necessarily displaces workers performing certain
tasks — that’s where the gains in productivity come from — but over the
long run, it generates new products and services that raise national
income and increase the overall demand for labor. In 1900, no one could
foresee that a century later, health care, finance, information
technology, consumer electronics, hospitality, leisure and entertainment
would employ far more workers than agriculture. Of course, as societies
grow more prosperous, citizens often choose to work shorter days, take
longer vacations and retire earlier — but that too is progress.</p><p>So
if technological advances don’t threaten employment, does that mean
workers have nothing to fear from “smart machines”? Actually, no — and
here’s where the Luddites had a point. Although many 19th-century
Britons benefited from the introduction of newer and better automated
looms — unskilled laborers were hired as loom operators, and a growing
middle class could now afford mass-produced fabrics — it’s unlikely that
skilled textile workers benefited on the whole.</p><p>Fast-forward to
the present. The multi-trillionfold decline in the cost of computing
since the 1970s has created enormous incentives for employers to
substitute increasingly cheap and capable computers for expensive labor.
These rapid advances — which confront us daily as we check in at
airports, order books online, pay bills on our banks’ Web sites or
consult our smartphones for driving directions — have reawakened fears
that workers will be displaced by machinery. Will this time be
different?</p><p>A starting point for discussion is the observation that
although computers are ubiquitous, they cannot do everything. A
computer’s ability to accomplish a task quickly and cheaply depends upon
a human programmer’s ability to write procedures or rules that direct
the machine to take the correct steps at each contingency. Computers
excel at “routine” tasks: organizing, storing, retrieving and
manipulating information, or executing exactly defined physical
movements in production processes. These tasks are most pervasive in
middle-skill jobs like bookkeeping, clerical work and repetitive
production and quality-assurance jobs.</p><p>Logically, computerization
has reduced the demand for these jobs, but it has boosted demand for
workers who perform “nonroutine” tasks that complement the automated
activities. Those tasks happen to lie on opposite ends of the
occupational skill distribution.</p><p>At one end are so-called abstract
tasks that require problem-solving, intuition, persuasion and
creativity. These tasks are characteristic of professional, managerial,
technical and creative occupations, like law, medicine, science,
engineering, advertising and design. People in these jobs typically have
high levels of education and analytical capability, and they benefit
from computers that facilitate the transmission, organization and
processing of information.</p><p>On the other end are so-called manual
tasks, which require situational adaptability, visual and language
recognition, and in-person interaction. Preparing a meal, driving a
truck through city traffic or cleaning a hotel room present
mind-bogglingly complex challenges for computers. But they are
straightforward for humans, requiring primarily innate abilities like
dexterity, sightedness and language recognition, as well as modest
training. These workers can’t be replaced by robots, but their skills
are not scarce, so they usually make low wages.</p><p>Computerization
has therefore fostered a polarization of employment, with job growth
concentrated in both the highest- and lowest-paid occupations, while
jobs in the middle have declined. Surprisingly, overall employment rates
have largely been unaffected in states and cities undergoing this rapid
polarization. Rather, as employment in routine jobs has ebbed,
employment has risen both in high-wage managerial, professional and
technical occupations and in low-wage, in-person service occupations.</p><p>So
computerization is not reducing the quantity of jobs, but rather
degrading the quality of jobs for a significant subset of workers.
Demand for highly educated workers who excel in abstract tasks is
robust, but the middle of the labor market, where the routine
task-intensive jobs lie, is sagging. Workers without college education
therefore concentrate in manual task-intensive jobs — like food
services, cleaning and security — which are numerous but offer low
wages, precarious job security and few prospects for upward mobility.
This bifurcation of job opportunities has contributed to the historic
rise in income inequality.</p><p>HOW can we help workers ride the wave
of technological change rather than be swamped by it? One common
recommendation is that citizens should invest more in their education.
Spurred by growing demand for workers performing abstract job tasks, the
payoff for college and professional degrees has soared; despite its
formidable price tag, higher education has perhaps never been a better
investment. But it is far from a comprehensive solution to our labor
market problems. Not all high school graduates — let alone displaced
mid- and late-career workers — are academically or temperamentally
prepared to pursue a four-year college degree. Only 40 percent of
Americans enroll in a four-year college after graduating from high
school, and more than 30 percent of those who enroll do not complete the
degree within eight years.</p><p>The good news, however, is that
middle-education, middle-wage jobs are not slated to disappear
completely. While many middle-skill jobs are susceptible to automation,
others demand a mixture of tasks that take advantage of human
flexibility. To take one prominent example, medical paraprofessional
jobs — radiology technician, phlebotomist, nurse technician — are a
rapidly growing category of relatively well-paid, middle-skill
occupations. While these paraprofessions do not typically require a
four-year college degree, they do demand some postsecondary vocational
training.</p><p>These middle-skill jobs will persist, and potentially
grow, because they involve tasks that cannot readily be unbundled
without a substantial drop in quality. Consider, for example, the
frustration of calling a software firm for technical support, only to
discover that the technician knows nothing more than the standard
answers shown on his or her computer screen — that is, the technician is
a mouthpiece reading from a script, not a problem-solver. This is not
generally a productive form of work organization because it fails to
harness the complementarities between technical and interpersonal
skills. Simply put, the quality of a service within any occupation will
improve when a worker combines routine (technical) and nonroutine
(flexible) tasks.</p><p>Following this logic, we predict that the
middle-skill jobs that survive will combine routine technical tasks with
abstract and manual tasks in which workers have a comparative advantage
— interpersonal interaction, adaptability and problem-solving. Along
with medical paraprofessionals, this category includes numerous jobs for
people in the skilled trades and repair: plumbers; builders;
electricians; heating, ventilation and air-conditioning installers;
automotive technicians; customer-service representatives; and even
clerical workers who are required to do more than type and file. Indeed,
even as formerly middle-skill occupations are being “deskilled,” or
stripped of their routine technical tasks (brokering stocks, for
example), other formerly high-end occupations are becoming accessible to
workers with less esoteric technical mastery (for example, the work of
the nurse practitioner, who increasingly diagnoses illness and
prescribes drugs in lieu of a physician). Lawrence F. Katz, a labor
economist at Harvard, memorably called those who fruitfully combine the
foundational skills of a high school education with specific vocational
skills the “new artisans.”</p><p>The outlook for workers who haven’t
finished college is uncertain, but not devoid of hope. There will be job
opportunities in middle-skill jobs, but not in the traditional
blue-collar production and white-collar office jobs of the past. Rather,
we expect to see growing employment among the ranks of the “new
artisans”: licensed practical nurses and medical assistants; teachers,
tutors and learning guides at all educational levels; kitchen designers,
construction supervisors and skilled tradespeople of every variety;
expert repair and support technicians; and the many people who offer
personal training and assistance, like physical therapists, personal
trainers, coaches and guides. These workers will adeptly combine
technical skills with interpersonal interaction, flexibility and
adaptability to offer services that are uniquely human.</p><p><em>David
H. Autor is a professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. David Dorn is an assistant professor of economics at the
Center for Monetary and Financial Studies in Madrid.</em></p></div>
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