<div dir="ltr"><h1 class="">The Power of Names</h1>
<div class="">Posted by <cite class=""><a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/bios/adam_alter/search?contributorName=Adam%20Alter" title="search site for content by Adam Alter" rel="author">Adam Alter</a></cite></div>
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<p>The German poet Christian Morgenstern once said that “all seagulls
look as though their name were Emma.” Though Morgenstern was known for
his <a href="http://www.alb-neckar-schwarzwald.de/morgenstern/morgenstern_poems.html" target="_blank">nonsense poetry</a>,
there was truth in his suggestion that some linguistic labels are
perfectly suited to the concepts they denote. “Dawdle” and “meander”
sound as unhurried as the walking speeds they describe, and “awkward”
and “gawky” sound as ungainly as the bodies they represent. When the
Gestalt psychologist and fellow German Wolfgang Köhler <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-jgN7PpjR1AC&pg=PA224&lpg=PA224&dq=morgenstern+poet+all+seagulls+emma&source=bl&ots=xSruFqfm9r&sig=pJ4oellVvW1mZ-lr_0sTwUTzwGs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_ceoUcqaEba34APcioCIBw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false" target="_blank">read Morgenstern’s poem</a>,
in the nineteen-twenties, he was moved to suggest that words convey
symbolic ideas beyond their meaning. To test the idea more carefully, he
asked a group of respondents to decide which of the two shapes below
was a <i>maluma</i> and which was a <i>takete:</i></p>
<p><img alt="malumatakete-580.png" src="http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/elements/malumatakete-580.png" class="" style="text-align: center; display: block; margin: 0px auto 20px;" height="234" width="580"></p>
<p>If you’re like the vast majority of Köhler’s respondents, you’re compelled by the idea that <i>malumas</i> are soft and rounded (like the shape on the left), whereas <i>taketes</i>
are sharp and jagged (like that on the right). As Köhler showed, words
carry hidden baggage that may play at least some role in shaping
thought. What’s surprising, perhaps, is how profoundly a single word can
shape material outcomes over time. </p>
<div id="entry-more"><p>Take the case of the proper name, a particular type of word. Like <i>maluma</i> and <i>takete</i>, the names people choose for their children convey a wealth of sometimes unintended information. <a href="http://www.abajournal.com/weekly/female_lawyers_with_masculine_names_may_have_a_better_shot_at_judgeships_st" target="_blank">In one study</a>,
the economists Bentley Coffey and Patrick McLaughlin examined whether
female lawyers in South Carolina were more likely to become judges if
their names were more “masculine.” Some names—like James, John, and
Michael—are almost exclusively male; others—like Hazel, Ashley, and
Laurie—are almost exclusively female. But a third group is shared almost
equally by men and women—like Kerry and Jody—and women with those names
were notably more likely than their nominally feminine counterparts to
become judges. The researchers labelled the phenomenon the Portia
Hypothesis, after the female character in Shakespeare’s “The Merchant of
Venice” who disguises herself as a man so she can appear before the
all-male court. (Note that the experiment can’t rule out the possibility
that the nominally masculine lawyers actually behaved differently from
their nominally feminine counterparts.)</p>
<p>Similar linguistic associations influence how we think and behave in
other ways. For example, if I told you that I was driving north across
hilly terrain tomorrow, would you expect that drive to be mostly uphill
or mostly downhill? If you’re like most people, you associate northerly
movement with going uphill, and southerly movement with going downhill.
According to <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=963159" target="_blank">research by the psychologists Leif Nelson and Joseph Simmons</a>,
this association produces some strange biases: people believe that a
bird will take longer to migrate between the same two points if it flies
north than if it flies south; they expect a moving company to charge
eighty per cent more to move furniture north rather than south; and, as <a href="http://spp.sagepub.com/content/2/5/547" target="_blank">a different study</a>
concluded, they assume that property is more valuable when it sits in
the northern part of town. Apparently these quirks stem from the
decision of early Greek mapmakers to plot the northern hemisphere above
the southern hemisphere—a decision that frustrated, among others, an
Australian named Stuart McArthur, who proposed <a href="http://www.odt.org/NewMaps.htm#Mcarthur" target="_blank">a corrective map</a>
that reversed the projection. This may not be the sort of effect that
Köhler envisaged, but it does suggest that arbitrary linguistic traits
have an outsized influence on our thoughts and actions.</p>
<p>What ancient mapmakers did unwittingly for north and south, lawyers
do intentionally when they describe accident scenes. The defense might
call a car accident “contact”; the plaintiff might say one car “smashed”
the other. These labels really matter, as Elizabeth Loftus and John
Palmer showed in a classic experiment. After a group of students watched
the same series of traffic accidents, they were asked how fast the cars
were going when the accident occurred. When the cars were described as
having “contacted” one another, the students estimated their speed to be
thirty-two miles an hour, whereas another group estimated that the cars
were travelling at forty miles an hour when they were described as
having “smashed” one another. In a second experiment, fourteen per cent
of participants incorrectly remembered seeing shattered glass when told
that the cars “hit” one another, whereas thirty-two per cent of
participants in a second sample made the same error when told the cars
“smashed” into one another. If a single word can change how people
remember an event they witnessed only minutes earlier, there isn’t much
hope for eyewitnesses who recall, often months or years later, events
experienced under stressful, distracted conditions. </p>
<p>Beyond their meaning, words also differ according to how easy they
are to pronounce. People generally prefer not to think more than
necessary, and they tend to <a href="http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/%7Eaalter/tribes.pdf" target="_blank">prefer objects, people, products, and words</a>
that are simple to pronounce and understand. In 2006, my colleague
Daniel Oppenheimer and I investigated the performance of hundreds of
stocks immediately after they were listed on the financial markets
between 1990 and 2004. We discovered that companies with simpler names
that were easier to pronounce received a greater post-release bump than
did companies with complex names. (I also wrote about this phenomenon <a href="http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/trade_of_the_trick_U7gmvx2cuvrAn2SzhcZU1K" target="_blank">for the New York <i>Post</i></a>.)
The effect was strongest during the first few days of trading, when
investors had little information about the stock’s fundamentals and were
more likely to be swayed by extraneous factors. (We also ran a series
of additional analyses to rule out the possibility that the effect was
driven by different naming trends across different industries, company
sizes, or countries, and the possibility that successful stocks seem to
have fluent names merely because they’re mentioned more often in the
media.) Even stocks with pronounceable ticker codes (e.g., KAR)—the
letter strings that investors use to refer to each stock—outperformed
those with unpronounceable ticker codes (e.g., RDO) in the short run. An
investor who placed a thousand dollars in the ten most fluently named
stocks between 1990 and 2004 would have earned a fifteen-per-cent return
after just one day of trading, whereas the same thousand dollars
invested in the ten least fluently named stocks would have earned a
return of only four per cent. (In the magazine last year, John Colapinto
wrote about the virtues of simplicity <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/10/03/111003fa_fact_colapinto">in choosing brand names</a>.</p>
<p>Even the names people choose for their children vary from simple to
complex, and that decision determines some of their outcomes later in
life. With the psychologists Simon Laham and Peter Koval, I <a href="https://ppw.kuleuven.be/okp/_pdf/Laham2012TNPEW.pdf" target="_blank">found</a>
that people prefer politicians with simpler names—and lawyers in
American firms with fluent names rise up the legal hierarchy to
partnership more quickly than their non-fluently named colleagues. (The
result persisted even when we focussed on Anglo-American names, so it
doesn’t simply boil down to xenophobic prejudice.) </p>
<p>These studies suggest a sort of linguistic <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dp27un.html" target="_blank">Heisenberg principle</a>:
as soon as you label a concept, you change how people perceive it. It’s
difficult to imagine a truly neutral label, because words evoke images
(as do <i>maluma</i> and <i>takete</i>), are associated with other
concepts (as are “north” with up and “south” with down), and vary in
complexity (from KAR to RDO). Still, you don’t need to worry too much
about what you name your children. The effects are subtle, people with
non-fluent names succeed all the time, and norms change. After three
decades of fluently named Presidents—a Ronald, two Georges, and a
Bill—Barack Obama ascended to the Presidency. Five years later, “Barack”
has become one of the easiest-to-pronounce names in the country. </p>
<p><i>Adam Alter is the author of <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Drunk-Tank-Pink-Unexpected-Forces/dp/1594204543/" target="_blank">Drunk Tank Pink: And Other Unexpected Forces That Shape How We Think, Feel, and Behave</a>,
in which many of these studies are also discussed. He is an assistant
professor of marketing at New York University’s Stern School of
Business, with an affiliated appointment in the N.Y.U. psychology
department.</i></p>
<p><em>Illustration by Jordan Awan.</em></p></div>
</div><div><br>-- <br>Art Deco (Wayne A. Fox)<br><a href="mailto:art.deco.studios@gmail.com" target="_blank">art.deco.studios@gmail.com</a><br><br><img src="http://users.moscow.com/waf/WP%20Fox%2001.jpg"><br>
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