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<h1>As drug industry’s influence over research grows, so does the potential for bias</h1>
<h3>
By <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/peter-whoriskey/2011/03/08/ABlpFKP_page.html" rel="author">Peter Whoriskey</a>, <span class="">Published: November 24</span>
</h3>
<p>For drugmaker <a href="http://washpost.bloomberg.com/marketnews/stockdetail/?symbol=GSK">GlaxoSmithKline</a>, the <a target="_blank" href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa066224#t=articleTop">17-page article</a> in the New England Journal of Medicine represented a coup.</p>
<p>The 2006 report described a trial that compared three diabetes
drugs and concluded that Avandia, the company’s new drug, performed
best.</p><p>“We now have clear evidence from a large international study
that the initial use of [Avandia] is more effective than standard
therapies,” a senior vice president of GlaxoSmithKline, Lawson
Macartney, said in a news release.</p><p>What only careful readers of
the article would have gleaned is the extent of the financial
connections between the drugmaker and the research. The trial had been
funded by GlaxoSmithKline, and each of the 11 authors had received money
from the company. Four were employees and held company stock. The other
seven were academic experts who had received grants or consultant fees
from the firm.</p><p>Whether these ties altered the report on Avandia
may be impossible for readers to know. But while sorting through the
data from more than 4,000 patients, the investigators missed hints of a
danger that, when fully realized four years later, would lead to
Avandia’s virtual disappearance from the United States:</p><p>The drug raised the risk of heart attacks.</p><p>“If
you looked closely at the data that was out there, you could see
warning signs,” said Steven E. Nissen, a Cleveland Clinic cardiologist
who issued one of the earliest warnings about the drug. “But they were
overlooked.”</p><p>A Food and Drug Administration scientist later estimated that the drug had been associated with 83,000 heart attacks and deaths.</p><p>Arguably
the most prestigious medical journal in the world, the New England
Journal of Medicine regularly features articles over which
pharmaceutical companies and their employees can exert significant
influence.</p><p>Over a year-long period ending in August, NEJM
published 73 articles on original studies of new drugs, encompassing
drugs approved by the FDA since 2000 and experimental drugs, according
to a review by The Washington Post.</p><p>Of those articles, 60 were
funded by a pharmaceutical company, 50 were co-written by drug company
employees and 37 had a lead author, typically an academic, who had
previously accepted outside compensation from the sponsoring drug
company in the form of consultant pay, grants or speaker fees.</p><p>The
New England Journal of Medicine is not alone in featuring research
sponsored in large part by drug companies — it has become a common
practice that reflects the growing role of industry money in research.</p><p>Years
ago, the government funded a larger share of such experiments. But
since about the mid-1980s, research funding by pharmaceutical firms has
exceeded what the National Institutes of Health spends. Last year, the
industry spent $39 billion on research in the United States while NIH
spent $31 billion.</p><p>The billions that the drug companies invest in
such experiments help fund the world’s quest for cures. But their aim is
not just public health. That money is also part of a high-risk quest
for profits, and over the past decade corporate interference has
repeatedly muddled the nation’s drug science, sometimes with potentially
lethal consequences.</p><p>Over a decade, controversies over
blockbuster drugs such as Vioxx, Avandia and Celebrex erupted amid
charges that the companies had shaped their research to obscure the
dangerous side effects.</p><p>When the company is footing the bill, the
opportunities for bias are manifold: Company executives seeking to
promote their drugs can design research that makes their products look
better. They can select like-minded academics to perform the work. And
they can run the statistics in ways that make their own drugs look
better than they are. If troubling signs about a drug arise, they can
steer clear of further exploration.</p><p>Maybe the most widely reported
research controversy arose over the arthritis drug Vioxx, which had
been featured positively in a NEJM article. The article reported the
results of a trial that was funded by <a href="http://washpost.bloomberg.com/marketnews/stockdetail/?symbol=MRK">Merck</a> and was co-written by two company researchers.</p><p>Five
years later, journal editors reported discovering that the authors had
omitted key incidences of heart troubles, creating “misleading”
conclusions about the drug’s safety. Before the drug was pulled from the
market, according to a review by an FDA investigator, it caused an
extra 27,000 heart attacks and cardiac-related deaths.</p><p>Other
industry-funded papers published in NEJM have led to conclusions that
were later contradicted. Research published in NEJM regarding
bestsellers such as the anemia drug Epogen and heart drug Natrecor has
been challenged later by studies performed by other researchers.</p><p>“Unfortunately,
the entire evidence base has been perverted,” said Joseph Ross, a
professor at Yale Medical School who has studied the issue.</p><p>Just
because industry-funded researchers arrived at conclusions that were
later discarded does not mean that money biased their findings.
Researchers get things wrong for lots of reasons — errors are a part of
science.</p><p>But Ross notes that corporate bias can be particularly
strong. The odds of coming to a conclusion favorable to the industry are
3.6 times greater in research sponsored by the industry than in
research sponsored by government and nonprofit groups, according to a
published analysis by Justin Bekelman, a professor at the University of
Pennsylvania, and colleagues.</p><p>Moreover, at the same time that
companies have been funding a larger share of research, they have
shifted the job of conducting trials away from nonprofit academic
hospitals to for-profit “contract research organizations.” Critics say
that with this change, corporate bias is less likely to be challenged.</p><p>Academics have “contributed to the quality, intellectual rigor, and impact of <span>. . .</span>
clinical trials,” the editors of the nation’s top medical journals,
including NEJM, wrote in an editorial in 2001. “But, as economic
pressures mount, this may be a thing of the past.”</p><p>With the
for-profit companies competing to run the trials, “corporate sponsors
have been able to dictate the terms,” the editorial said.</p><p>In
recent years, more than half of the money the industry spends on outside
research goes to for-profit organizations rather than universities and
other academic centers.</p><p>“It used to be that drug companies would
hand their new drug over to an academic center to have it tested, and
then they sat back and waited,” said Marcia Angell, who retired as
editor in chief of NEJM in 2000 after more than 20 years at the
publication. “Now they’re intimately involved in every step along the
way, and they treat academic researchers more like hired hands.”</p><p>The
result, Angell said, is that the research can be biased and that it can
be difficult for medical journals to unmask the problems.</p><p>“I used
to think that if studies were subject to rigorous peer review it would
then be enough to simply disclose authors’ commercial ties,” she said.
“But I no longer believe that’s enough. It’s too hard for anyone —
editors, peer reviewers, readers — to tell whether that bias has
affected the work.”</p><p>
<strong>The review process</strong>
</p><p>Caught in the middle of this vast shift are the editors of the
New England Journal of Medicine, which is owned by the nonprofit
Massachusetts Medical Society and runs on advertising, subscriptions and
other revenue.</p><p>More than 600,000 people in 177 countries read it
each week, according to the journal’s Web site, and it influences the
practice of medicine around the world.</p><p>“Overall, we’re in the
business of trying to make people better,” said Editor in Chief Jeffrey
M. Drazen, who is also a Harvard Medical School professor.</p><p>The
journal receives about 5,000 submissions a year. Those are reviewed by a
staff of 10 editors — nine physicians and a geneticist — in addition to
another 10 editors on contract.</p><p>Once an article makes the first
cut, the article is sent to “peer reviewers” — the journal has an index
of more than 10,000 such people — to scrutinize the reports. The
reviewers typically assess the paper based on what is presented — they
do not see all the data — but they often can tell when researchers are
overstating their drug discoveries.</p><p>“We spend a lot of our time
reworking language indicating that a drug is a blockbuster, when in fact
the data show it’s just so-so,” Drazen said.</p><p>As the industry’s
influence has grown, the journal and Drazen, who arrived at NEJM in
2000, have repeatedly taken steps to root out commercial bias.</p><p>In
1984, the editors laid out a policy calling for authors to disclose
their funding and financial associations. In 2001, they asked for more
details about the company’s role in the research. Then, last year,
Drazen and his team required that the lengthy “protocols” of studies
also be published, so anyone can see the exact steps that were taken.</p><p>Medical
journals have also acted in concert. In 2004, Drazen and editors at
other journals made it much harder for companies to hide unflattering
experiments, requiring drugmakers to register a summary description of
their trials in a public database.</p><p>“The drug companies went nuts
about requiring registration,” Drazen said. “They said, ‘That’s secret
information.’ We said, ‘That’s bull----.’ </p><p>“As a group, we stood them down,” Drazen said.</p><p>Despite
such measures, medical science appears to have reached a crisis:
Doctors have grown deeply skeptical of research funded by drug companies
— which, as it happens, is most of the research regarding new drugs
being published in NEJM.</p><p>According to a survey published this fall
in NEJM, doctors are about half as willing to prescribe a drug
described in an industry-funded trial. That’s unfortunate, doctors say,
because a good portion of the industry-funded research is done well.</p><p>“On
the one hand, there are a lot of important industry-funded studies that
are accurate, relevant and useful,” said Jerry Avorn, a Harvard
professor who has specialized in spotting adverse events from drug use.
“There is also a multi-year history of abuse and distortion.”</p><p>Responding
to that skepticism, Drazen has urged doctors to overcome their doubts
and to “believe the data,” as he put it in a recent editorial.</p><p>“Some
people thought I was a little naive” for saying that, Drazen said. But
he said he is convinced that most researchers are on the same mission he
has for the journal — to find the truth and help patients.</p><p>“This is a business built on people telling the truth,” he said.</p><p>But
Drazen said he has no illusions about what the demand for profits can
do to pure motives. He noted that the stakes are highest for patients.</p><p>“I
lie awake at night because I know somebody somewhere is trying to pull a
fast one on me,” he said. “Have we plugged every leak?”</p><p>He pauses and shrugs:</p><p>“We don’t know. But we think we get most of them.”</p><p>
<strong>Risks vs. benefits</strong>
</p><p>The outlines of the Avandia case — in which the drug’s dangers
had been recognized within the company long before the FDA pulled it
from retail shelves — are well known.</p><p>But the way that company
officials employed academics — and the prestige of the nation’s top
journal — to promote the idea that the drug was safe has received little
public scrutiny, and a full account offers a window into the corporate
decisions underlying today’s drug research.</p><p>Interviews, FDA
documents and e-mails released by a Senate investigation indicate that
GlaxoSmithKline withheld key information from the academic researchers
it had selected to do the work; decided against conducting a proposed
trial, because it might have shown unflattering side effects; and
published the results of an unfinished trial even though they were
inconclusive and served to do little but obscure the signs of danger
that had arisen.</p><p>The company says it acted properly throughout.</p><p>“We
firmly believe we acted responsibly in conducting the clinical trial
program, in marketing the medicine, in monitoring its safety once it was
approved for use and in updating information in the medicine’s labeling
as new information became available,” the company said in a statement.</p><p>From
nearly the beginning, Glaxo scientists confronted signs of potential
heart dangers in Avandia. In 2000, about a year after the drug’s
approval, a small internal study suggested that Avandia might raise
“bad” cholesterol levels more than a competitor.</p><p>The company
considered sponsoring a full-blown trial to weigh the issue, but before
it did, scientists conducted a “risk/benefit” analysis — not to
calculate the risks and benefits of the drug to patients but to see
whether a full-blown trial could harm the drug’s reputation.</p><p>When
that analysis showed a sign of danger — Avandia raised bad cholesterol
levels more than the competitor — the company decided to drop the
subject.</p><p>“The study results support a ‘no-go’ decision,” the internal report concluded, meaning that a full trial would not be conducted.</p><p>The researchers even warned one another against sharing the results of the preliminary study.</p>
<p>“Per
Sr. Mgmt request, these data should not see the light of day to anyone
outside of GSK,” said an internal e-mail that was widely reported after
it turned up in the Senate investigation.</p><p>Even when the company
was ordered by the FDA to study potential dangers, it arranged a trial
in which danger signs were muffled, or missed completely.</p><p>In
approving Avandia, the FDA had asked the company to conduct a trial,
known by its acronym ADOPT, to look into the drug’s safety, including
“cardiovascular events.”</p><p>As is common practice, the company
arranged for a group of experts — mostly academics — to form a steering
committee to guide and publish the experiment. Four of the 11 committee
members were Glaxo employees. The other seven reported serving as paid
consultants or had other financial connections to the company.</p><p>The
trial would involve more than 4,000 diabetic patients. About one-third
would be given Avandia, the rest one of two older, commonly used drugs.</p><p>But
as the FDA later noted, the ADOPT trial was not really designed to
assess heart risks. For one thing, it excluded people most at risk of
heart trouble, making it harder to spot a problem. Moreover,
investigators did not have a group of doctors validate reports of heart
attacks, as is customary because they can be difficult to detect.
Finally, about 40 percent of patients dropped out of the trial.</p><p>These
aspects of the trial “limited any ability” to draw conclusions about
the risk of heart problems, an FDA staff memo later said.</p><p>Why
would the academics have set up a trial like that? One reason is that
Glaxo apparently did not tell its own academic researchers that the FDA
had requested that the ADOPT trial look at possible heart troubles.</p><p>“We
have no first-hand knowledge of what the FDA requested of [Glaxo],”
Steven Kahn, a professor of medicine at the University of Washington and
the lead author of the NEJM article, wrote via e-mail in response to
Post questions. “ADOPT was clearly not designed to assess cardiovascular
risk.”</p><p>Moreover, as the academics were wrapping up their work and
preparing it for publication in NEJM, Glaxo apparently did not inform
their researchers of warning signs regarding Avandia and cardiovascular
troubles.</p><p>“Up to the time that our paper was published, we were
unaware of any concern that [Avandia] might potentially have adverse
effects on cardiovascular disease,” the seven authors who were not Glaxo
employees wrote in an e-mailed response to Post questions. They
stressed their belief that the results were fully presented.</p><p>The company, however, was aware of potential dangers.</p><p>In
2003, the Uppsala Monitoring Center of the World Health Organization
had issued the company a warning that drugs of this type might be
associated with heart trouble. Then, in 2005 and 2006, Glaxo conducted
an examination of records from more than 14,000 patients and concluded
that Avandia raised the risk of coronary blood flow problems by about
30 percent, the Senate investigators said.</p><p>The company contends, contrary to the authors, that it shared the findings of the 2006 study with the steering committee.</p><p>But
in their article for NEJM, the authors focused mainly on the fact that
Avandia had performed the best — that is, it was able to control blood
sugar for the longest period.</p><p>As for those hints of cardiovascular
risks that Nissen, the Cleveland Clinic cardiologist, had seen in the
data? The authors pointed to no such trouble.</p><p>The risks of
“cardiovascular events” associated with Avandia, the article said, were
“similar” to those affecting patients who had taken metformin, one of
the most prescribed diabetes drugs in the world.</p><p>The signal for doctors was clear: Don’t worry.</p><p>
<strong>‘It didn’t look right’</strong>
</p><p>But Nissen could not help but worry.</p><p>He had seen other data
that suggested to him that Avandia could cause heart trouble. Another
trial sponsored by the company, known as DREAM, had shown a slight
trend, he thought, but the number of patients was too small to be
considered statistically significant. Then, in the ADOPT trial results,
he saw the same clues repeated, even if they were not remarked upon by
authors of the article.</p><p>The trend in the data was suggestive,
Nissen thought, though again not statistically significant. In the two
groups of patients that had taken the commonly used drugs, there had
been 14 and 20 serious heart attacks. The Avandia group had 24.</p><p>And there was another clue: The measures of bad cholesterol were notably higher in the Avandia group.</p><p>“The trend was in the wrong direction, and that’s what sent me off,” Nissen said. “It didn’t look right.”</p>
<p>To
see whether his suspicions were warranted, Nissen, with colleague Kathy
Wolski, set out to assemble the data from every trial of Avandia that
they could find. The more data they had, the more likely they could
accurately gauge the risks. The drugmaker refused Nissen’s requests for
data, but because of litigation brought by Eliot Spitzer, then New
York’s attorney general, the company had been forced to make some of it
public. In all, he discovered the summaries of 42 trials — 35 of them
unpublished. Most of them had been sponsored by Glaxo.</p><p>After
analysis, the results were stark: Avandia raised the risks of heart
attack by 43 percent and of death from heart problems by 64 percent.</p><p>Those
findings would stand up. But the reach of the pharmaceutical companies
to influence the science would create three more years of uncertainty.</p><p>
<strong>Glaxo ready to respond</strong>
</p><p>Nissen and Wolski submitted their findings to NEJM on May 2, 2007.</p><p>Normally,
an article takes several months to get published, but Drazen put it on a
fast track, publishing it on the NEJM Web site 19 days later, on May
21.</p><p>“This was a big surprise, and I wanted to get it out there,”
Drazen said. “If it was right, thousands of people were having heart
attacks because of this drug.”</p><p>Glaxo was surprisingly well prepared to respond.</p><p>How? What was not known until later is that the NEJM paper had been leaked to the company.</p><p>As
part of the process of peer review, the paper had been sent to Steven
M. Haffner, a Glaxo ally and a University of Texas professor who had
helped conduct the ADOPT trial.</p><p>Without telling Drazen or Nissen,
Haffner faxed a copy of the confidential unpublished paper to the
company, according to documents released by the Senate.</p><p>More than
40 company executives would learn of its contents. They prepared a
meticulous response to its publication that suggested that Nissen’s
results were plain wrong.</p><p>“GSK strongly disagrees with the
conclusions reached in the NEJM article, which are based on incomplete
evidence and a methodology that the author admits has significant
limitations,” the news release said.</p><p>But internally, scientists
and statisticians at Glaxo largely agreed with Nissen’s calculations,
the company e-mails released by the Senate show.</p><p>“To a great
extent the numbers are the numbers, the Cleveland analysis is very
similar to our own,” one of them reported via e-mail.</p><p>
<strong>An ‘underpowered’ study</strong>
</p><p>The company would also launch one other strategic counter to
Nissen’s paper: They would publish the results of another, separate
trial of Avandia that they were conducting, known as the RECORD trial.</p><p>One
of the reasons that the Glaxo executives could be confident that the
RECORD trial would show no danger is that the trial did not have enough
patients enrolled to judge the drug’s heart-attack risks, as Glaxo
scientists believed, according to the Senate report. It was, in the
scientific jargon, “ underpowered.”</p><p>The Glaxo executives faced one
big problem, however. The RECORD trial was two years from completion.
Publishing the interim results of a trial is very unusual because it
tips off patients and doctors in a way that could bias results.</p><p>Like
the ADOPT trial, the RECORD trial was funded by Glaxo, which had in
turn hired a steering committee of prestigious academics to lead it.</p><p>The
researchers in the RECORD trial had many financial ties to the company,
too. Of the eight authors of the RECORD trial report, one was a Glaxo
employee. The other seven reported having received consulting fees or
other support from Glaxo. One, Philip D. Home, reported donating such
money to medical institutions.</p><p>While the academics were nominally
in charge of the trial, it would be the company, not the academics, who
would first decide to publish the interim results.</p><p>The day before
the academics were to meet, Ronald L. Krall, Glaxo’s chief medical
officer, told another employee in an e-mail, “We’ve decided we will
disclose the results.”</p><p>If the steering committee objected, the
executives were prepared to tell them that a “decision has been made —
live with it,” according to an e-mail from Glaxo executive Trevor G.
Gibbs.</p><p>When the academics were convened the next day, the group
went along with the decision to publish interim results. They decided on
their own, the steering committee’s chairman, Home, said via e-mail. He
said they feared that Nissen’s warning could scare patients and doctors
out of the trial, and they needed to reassure them.</p><p>“We had no choice but to publish,” he said. “The decision was inevitable if regrettable.”</p><p>In
their first submission to NEJM, Home and his co-authors indicated that
the RECORD trial results had undermined Nissen’s warning, according to a
letter from the journal to the authors.</p><p>But NEJM’s peer reviewers noted that the data did not support that conclusion, and they demanded changes.</p><p>As result, when the article appeared in July 2007, it did not say anything definitive about Avandia and certain heart problems.</p>
<p>The
paper said that the results of the RECORD trial were “inconclusive” as
to whether the drug raised the risk of cardiovascular problems and that
the data were “insufficient” to determine whether the drug raised the
heart-attack risk.</p><p>Yet the language in the article, though
equivocating, might still have helped Avandia sales by making the issue
look like a muddle.</p><p>“What it did was it falsely reassured
practitioners and patients that [Avandia] might be safe when in fact it
wasn’t,” Nissen said. “They got three more years out of it.”</p><p>It
was not until 2010 that Nissen was largely vindicated. An FDA reviewer
indicated that the RECORD trial had been poorly designed and suggested
that investigators had improperly missed heart problems suffered by
Avandia patients.</p><p>In September 2010, the FDA announced major
restrictions on the use of Avandia. On the same day, European regulators
ordered it off the market.</p><p>
<strong>Blocking bias</strong>
</p><p>In the wake of controversies arising around Vioxx, Avandia and
Celebrex, many in the medical world have sought ways to ensure that drug
research is free of commercial bias.</p><p>One of the leading proposals
would be to compel drug companies to release all of the data from
trials of drugs that are on the market.</p><p>Over the summer, the
European Medicines Agency — the continent’s counterpart to the FDA —
said it will move toward requiring the release of all such data. Glaxo,
too, has said it is preparing for such a release, though other companies
have yet to follow suit.</p><p>“Since 2004, we have posted summaries of
all our clinical trial results on our Web site for the world to see,”
Glaxo said in a statement. “All of these actions speak to the degree of
commitment we have to be open with our research so there can be more
understanding, and hopefully credibility, in what we are doing.”</p><p>Such
transparency about industry-sponsored trials would not eliminate the
ability of companies to avoid unflattering studies, or to hire
like-minded researchers, or to design research that gives only positive
views of their products.</p><p>But if such measures are carried out
across the industry — and there is no sign at this point that they will
be — independent researchers could analyze the data from trials and come
to their own conclusions.</p><p>Many believe drug companies should feel obliged to share such information.</p><p>“If
you have the privilege of selling a drug, in return should come the
responsibility to share everything you know about the drug,” said Harlan
Krumholz, a professor of medicine at Yale and a leading advocate of
data access. “This is not about doing gotcha with industry. It’s about
how to restore trust.”</p><p>
<strong>
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