<div>This just posted article on the 2012 record Arctic sea ice decline, from Skepticalscience.com, offers a superb summary of critical science on this issue, noting at the bottom that several of the models used to predict Arctic ice responses to anthropogenic climate change, rather than biased towards large impacts, which is what many in the anthropogenic climate change denialasphere insist, actually underestimated the observed rate of Arctic sea ice decline we now see. The very important graphs omitted from the text below can be viewed at the following website:</div>
<div><br></div><a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html">http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html</a><div>
<h2>Record Arctic Sea Ice Melt to Levels Unseen in Millennia</h2>
<h4>Posted on 5 September 2012 by dana1981</h4>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify"><a href="http://skepticalscience.com/why-arctic-sea-ice-shouldnt-leave-anyone-cold.html">The
record Arctic sea ice decline</a> this year has predictably and deservedly
received a fair amount of media attention. Jonathan Leake of the <em>Sunday
Times</em> recently penned <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/pics/Leake-ST-ice-article.jpg">an article
on the impending sea ice record</a>. The bulk of the article was quite good,
but at the end succumbed to the standard mainstream media practice of seeking
"balance," thus including some comments by <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/John_Christy_blog.htm">John Christy</a>.
Christy has become very reliable for arguing that anything and everything
related to climate change probably just boils down to natural variability, <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/christy-once-again-misinforms-congress.html">as
he recently told US Congress</a> was the case with regards to the frequency of
extreme weather events, <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/extreme-weather-global-warming-intermediate.htm">contrary
to the body of peer-reviewed scientific literature</a>.</p>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">As we will see in this post, Christy once again
misrepresented the body of scientific literature with regards to Arctic sea ice
extent in his efforts to paint <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/lessons-from-past-predictions-vinnikov-arctic-sea-ice.html">the
Arctic sea ice death spiral</a> as nothing out of the ordinary.</p>
<h3 style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">2012 vs. 1940</h3>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">In Leake's article, Christy was paraphrased as
saying that there is</p>
<blockquote>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">"...anecdotal and other evidence suggesting
similar melts from 1938-43 and on other occasions."</p></blockquote>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">Christy's comments to Leake via email slightly
differed from Leake's paraphrasing, as Christy claimed that evidence suggests
summer melts during 1938-43 were "very low extent." This is a rather vague and
subjective statement - very low relative to what? Given the context, Leake
understandably appears to have assumed that Christy meant very low relative to
recent years, and perhaps he did, but it is also possible that he meant 'very
low' relative to the early 20th Century, for example.</p>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify">This begs the obvious question - in the
scientific literature, how does Arctic sea ice extent during the period 1938-43
compare to the rest of the 20th Century and current levels? One of the most
widely used long-term estimates of Arctic sea ice extent comes from <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/igsoc/agl/2001/00000033/00000001/art00071">Walsh
and Chapman (2001)</a>, whose <a href="http://arctic.atmos.uiuc.edu/SEAICE/timeseries.1870-2008">data are
available from the University of Illinois</a> (updated through 2008). A
description of the vast array of data used by Walsh and Chapman is available via
tamino <a href="http://tamino.wordpress.com/2011/09/17/more-cherry-ice-from-joe-daleo/">here</a>,
and the data are plotted in Figure 1.</p><p style="TEXT-ALIGN:justify"></p><p>Clearly the extent of Arctic sea ice during
1938-43 was nowhere near as low as current levels, based on these data.
According to this reconstruction, the minimum extent during that timeframe (9.8
million square kilometers in 1940) was higher than it has been at any time since
1979. In other words, Arctic sea ice extent has been lower than it was in
1938-43 during the entire satellite record, and the current average summer
extent is approximately 4.3 million square kilometers lower than the 1940
minimum.</p>
<p>It's true that according to this dataset, 1940
was a local minimum - the lowest Arctic sea ice extent of the 20th Century up to
that point, and a minimum that was not repeated again for another 20 years. In
that sense one could argue that Arctic sea ice extent at least in 1940 was "very
low" compared to the early and mid 20th Century, but compared to the past 20
years it was actually very high. This is also clear from a visual comparison of
sea ice extents in 1938 and 2012 (Figure 2).</p><p></p><p><em></em>Henry Larsen, who sailed the Arctic from
1922 to 1948 (<a href="http://www.vancouvermaritimemuseum.com/page216.htm">including 12 times
surviving being stuck in the Arctic ice all winter</a>), tried to sail the St.
Roch through the <a href="http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/northwest-passage">Northwest
Passage</a> in 1940. The voyage took more than two years to complete, as the
ship struggled through the ice. <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/StRoch.html">Larsen gave this firsthand
account</a> of the state of Arctic ice at the time:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"The three seasons of the short Arctic Summers
from 1940-42 had been extremely bad for navigation, the worst consecutive three
I had experienced as far as ice and weather conditions were concerned, and in my
remaining years in the Arctic I never saw their like. Without hesitation I would
say that most ships encountering the conditions we faced would have
failed."</p></blockquote>
<p>On the other side of the Arctic, Russian maritime
operations using icebreakers on the Northern Sea Route began in 1932 and give no
evidence for improving ice conditions in this period; rather the opposite, as
1937 and 1940 were noted for <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic33-1-3.pdf">heavy
ice in the Laptev Sea</a>.</p>
<h3>Greenland Temperature and Arctic Dominoes</h3>
<p>So what was the basis of Christy's claim of "very
low extent" in 1938-43? Christy provided two references to support his
assertions, <a href="http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/2009JCLI2816.1">Box et al.
(2009)</a> and <a href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1zx1v60n#page-1">Kobashi
et al. (2010)</a><a name="kobashi"></a>. However, neither of these papers involve
reconstructions of Arctic sea ice extent; rather, they deal with reconstructing
Greenland temperatures, which are not necessarily representative of Arctic
temperature as a whole - after all, the continent is covered in a large ice
sheet, and the reconstructions are from the summit of the Greenland ice cap, not
at sea level.</p>
<p><a name="domino"></a>We contacted <a href="http://www.meltfactor.org/blog/">Jason Box</a> (lead author of Box et al.
2009), who also noted that local temperatures are not the only factor at play in
determining Arctic sea ice extent. During the past two decades, Greenland
temperatures have climbed rather steeply, <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/Greenland_ice_sheet_summer_temperatures_highest_in_172_years.html">surpassing
local temperatures in the 1930s</a> (Figure 3), and <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/Prudent_Path_Polar.html">even moreso over
the whole Arctic</a> (Figure 4). These rising temperatures have been
accompanied by <a href="http://skepticalscience.com/unprecedented-greenland-ice-sheet-surface-melt.html">unprecedented
Greenland ice sheet surface melt</a>. Greenland glaciers have declined (<a href="http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v5/n6/full/ngeo1481.html"><span class="f">Bjørk</span> et al. 2012</a>) as have Greenland's ice shelves (<a href="http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2011/2011EO140001.shtml">Falkner et al.
2011</a>). For example, <a href="http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/wardhunt/">the Ward Hunt Ice
Shelf</a>, which was a least 3,000 years old, split off in 2002 (<a href="http://www.cen.ulaval.ca/warwickvincent/PDFfiles/175.pdf">Mueller et al.
2003</a>, <a href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6877/1/6877.pdf">England et al.
2008</a>, and <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/108/47/18899.full.pdf+html">Antoniades et al.
2011</a>).</p>
<p>All of this regional ice loss has decreased the
local surface reflectivity (albedo), causing the Arctic to absorb more solar
radiation, and thus we can expect that similar temperatures now will have a
larger impact on sea ice extent than in the past.</p><p></p><p class="wp-caption-text"><em></em>In other words,
there is a domino effect at play. Human-caused global warming contributes
to the summer Greenland warming (Figure 3), which causes <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-snow-cover.htm">snow to melt
earlier</a>, which causes decreased local albedo, which <span id="yui_3_2_0_8_1346197622880766">contributes to record Greeland ice sheet
decline, which further decreases local albedo, which in turn contributes to the
Arctic sea ice decline.</span></p>
<h3>2012 vs. the More Distant Past</h3>
<p>Christy also claimed that sea ice extent was low
1,000 years ago, as well as in the more distant past. However, his reference
for the claim of low sea ice extent 1,000 years ago was again Kobashi et al.
(2010), which <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html#kobashi">as noted above</a>, dealt with Greenland
temperatures rather than Arctic sea ice extent.</p>
<p>It's important to note that we expect the Arctic
to have been cooling over the past ~6,000 years due to the Earth's orbital
cycles. Thus if we look back far enough in the past, we can certainly find a
period during which the Arctic was hotter and Arctic sea ice extent was lower.
However, this actually contradicts John Christy's argument that the current sea
ice decline could be natural, because that long-term orbital forcing has not
reversed, and thus cannot account for the sudden and rapid Arctic warming and
concurrent sea ice decline. <a href="http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~shs/Climate%20change/Data%20sources/Kaufman%20Schneider%20recent%20warming.pdf"></a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~shs/Climate%20change/Data%20sources/Kaufman%20Schneider%20recent%20warming.pdf">Kaufman
et al. (2009)</a> reconstructed Arctic temperatures even further back in time
than shown in <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html#Fig5">Figure 5</a>, and confirmed that the Arctic had
been cooling for at least the past 2,000 years prior to the 20th Century, and
found an <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/Prudent_Path_Polar.html">Arctic
temperature 'hockey stick'</a> (Figure 5).</p><p></p><p>Perhaps the authoritative paper on Arctic sea ice
extent over the past 1,450 years is <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/Arctic-sea-ice-hockey-stick-melt-unprecedented-in-last-1450-years.html">Kinnard
et al. (2011)</a>, which used a combination of Arctic ice core, tree ring, and
lake sediment data to reconstruct past Arctic conditions. The results are shown
in Figure 6.</p><p></p><p>Based on the Kinnard results, Arctic sea ice
extent is currently lower than at any time in the past 1,450 years. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/bprc.osu.edu/geo/publications/polyak_etal_seaice_QSR_10.pdf">Polyak
et al. (2010)</a> looked at Arctic sea ice changes throughout geologic history
and noted that the current rate of loss appears to be more rapid than natural
variability can account for in the historical record.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"The current reduction in Arctic ice cover
started in the late 19th century, consistent with the rapidly warming climate,
and became very pronounced over the last three decades. This ice loss appears to
be unmatched over at least the last few thousand years and unexplainable by any
of the known natural variabilities."</p></blockquote>
<h3>Is the Sea Ice Decline Human-Caused?</h3>
<p>The evidence above certainly suggests that humans
have played a role in the Arctic sea ice decline, but what does the scientific
literature say on the matter? </p>
<p><a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/lessons-from-past-predictions-vinnikov-arctic-sea-ice.html">Vinnikov
et al. (1999)</a> estimated the probability that the Arctic sea ice decline
could simply be natural. The authors used very long control runs of both the
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) and Hadley Centre climate models
(5,000 years for the GFDL model) to assess the probability that the observed and
model-predicted trends in Arctic sea ice extent occur by chance as the result of
natural climate variability. <a name="large-short"></a>They found that large
trends in sea ice extent only appeared over short time intervals in the control
run, due to natural variability alone. This suggests that natural variability
will not cause large long-term Arctic sea ice trends.</p>
<p>Updating this analysis using observational data
through 2011 (not even including the 2012 record low sea ice extent), the
32-year trend (1979-2011) is -530 thousand square km per decade, and the 20-year
trend is -700 thousand square km per decade. Using the Vinnikov et al. results,
these trends both correspond to <strong><em>probabilities of</em> <em>well under
0.1% of being due solely to natural variability</em></strong>.</p>
<p><a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/7/3/034011">Day et al. (2012)</a> used
five climate models to try and quantify the contribution of natural variations
in Arctic sea ice changes. They found that between 5% and 30% of the Arctic sea
ice decline from 1979 to 2010 could be attributed to the natural cycles of the
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) and Arctic Oscillation (AO), and even
less can be attributed to natural cycles since 1953, since these natural cycles
tend to average out over longer timeframes (<a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html#large-short">as Vinnikov
also found</a>).</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"despite increased observational uncertainty in
the pre-satellite era, the trend in [Arctic sea ice extent] over this longer
period [1953–2010] is more likely to be representative of the anthropogenically
forced component."</p></blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2011/2010GL045662.shtml">Stroeve et al.
(2011)</a> noted that in 2009-2010, the AO was in a state which should have
resulted in a large sea ice extent; the fact that 2010 was a year of relatively
low sea ice extent is indicative long-term human-caused sea ice decline.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"Based on relationships established in previous
studies, the extreme negative phase of the Arctic Oscillation (AO) that
characterized winter of 2009/2010 should have favored retention of Arctic sea
ice through the 2010 summer melt season. The September 2010 sea ice extent
nevertheless ended up as third lowest in the satellite record, behind 2007 and
barely above 2008, reinforcing the long-term downward trend."</p></blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.agu.org/journals/gl/gl1208/2012GL051094/">Notz and Marotzke
(2012)</a> also found very poor correlation between the AO and Pacific Decadal
Oscillation (PDO) and Arctic sea ice extent (yellow and green in Figure 7),
concluding:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"the available observations are sufficient to
virtually exclude internal variability and self-acceleration as an explanation
for the observed long-term trend, clustering, and magnitude of recent sea-ice
minima. Instead, the recent retreat is well described by the superposition of an
externally forced linear trend and internal variability. For the externally
forced trend, we find a physically plausible strong correlation only with
increasing atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration. Our results hence show that
the observed evolution of Arctic sea-ice extent is consistent with the claim
that virtually certainly the impact of an anthropogenic climate change is
observable in Arctic sea ice already today."</p><p></p><h3>Global Climate Models Struggle to Account for
the Death Spiral</h3>
<p>Arctic sea ice has declined at a rate
significantly faster than global climate models have predicted. <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/lessons-from-past-predictions-vinnikov-arctic-sea-ice.html">Vinnikov
et al. (1999)</a> used the aforementioned GFDL and Hadley Centre climate models,
forced by greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols, to project how Arctic sea ice
extent would change in the future. As is the case with most climate models,
they under-predicted the ensuing decline (Figure 8). In fact, the Arctic sea
ice decline is already 27 years ahead of Vinnikov's projections.As <a href="http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2012/2012GL052676.shtml">Stroeve et al.
(2012)</a> discuss, newer climate models have made some progress in this area,
but still cannot account for the full extent of the Arctic sea ice decline.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>"Previous research revealed that the observed
downward trend in September ice extent exceeded simulated trends from most
models participating in the World Climate Research Programme Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3). We show here that as a group, simulated
trends from the models contributing to CMIP5 are more consistent with
observations over the satellite era (1979–2011). Trends from most ensemble
members and models nevertheless remain smaller than the observed
value."</p></blockquote>
<p>This may be due to the difficulty in accounting
for natural variations, or the physics associated with <a href="http://www.skepticalscience.com/record-arctic-sea-ice-melt-to-levels-unseen-in-millennia.html#domino">the
domino effect discussed above</a>, or both. There are some regional models
(i.e. see the model of <a href="http://www.ametsoc.org/atmospolicy/documents/May032006_Dr.WieslawMaslowski.pdf">Maslowski
et al.</a>, also <a href="http://www.climatecodered.org/2012/08/big-call-cambridge-prof-predicts-arctic.html">discussed
here</a>) which have had success in accounting for and predicting Arctic sea ice
changes, but climate models overall have been too conservative in projecting the
rapid decline in Arctic sea ice.</p>
<h3>Human-Caused Arctic Sea Ice Death Spiral</h3>
<p>The scientific literature is clear that the
current record Arctic sea ice decline is beyond what has occurred due to natural
variability for at least the past several millennia, certainly beyond what
occured circa 1940, and that human influences are primarily responsible for the
rapid rate of the death spiral. The rapid Arctic warming appears to have caused
a domino effect by resulting in record ice melt and thus a significant decrease
in local albedo, and therefore an increase in absorbed solar radiation. The
rapid warming and increased solar radiation absorption have combined to result
in younger, thinner Arctic sea ice, which therefore melts more easily, making
record low extents more likely to occur.</p>
<p>It is wishful thinking to believe that the Arctic
sea ice death spiral could simply be due to natural variability. The scientific
literature clearly shows that human-caused warming is the main driver behind
this exceptionally rapid decline.</p><p>-------------------------------------------</p><p>Vision2020 Post: Ted Moffett</p><p><br></p><p></p></blockquote><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p></div>