<div class="gmail_quote"><a href="http://physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v64/i10/p39_s1?bypassSSO=1" target="_blank">http://physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v64/i10/p39_s1?bypassSSO=1</a><br><br>Science controversies past and present<br>
<br>Steven Sherwoo<br><br>October 2011, page 39<br><br>Reactions to the science of global warming have followed a similar<br>course to those of other inconvenient truths from physics.<br><br>Science—especially the science behind climate change—is under fire.<br>
The climate issue has sparked a vigorous, and at times surreal, public<br>debate that seems to pit experts against one another on even the most<br>basic facts, such as whether human greenhouse gas emissions dominate<br>natural ones, whether added carbon dioxide alters the planetary<br>
emission of thermal radiation to space, and whether global<br>temperatures are rising.1 At its heart, global warming is a physics<br>problem, albeit a messy one that cannot proceed far without bringing<br>in meteorology, oceanography, and geology. (See the article by Raymond<br>
Pierrehumbert in PHYSICS TODAY, January 2011, page 33 .) The climate<br>debate has spread far beyond the confines of any of those scientific<br>circles and into the media and public sphere, where politicization and<br>vitriol are legion.<br>
<br>Although nearly all experts accept that the greenhouse gases emitted<br>by humans have caused significant warming to the planet and will<br>likely cause much more, only about half the US public agrees, even<br>after years of heavy media coverage. How did we get into such a mess?<br>
What are the implications for science, for how it should be<br>communicated, and for how debates should be interpreted? Some insights<br>may be gained by noting that global warming is not the first<br>“inconvenient truth” in physics. Consider this description of another,<br>
bygone debate:<br>The decision [whether to accept the new theory] was not exclusively,<br>or even primarily, a matter for astronomers, and as the debate spread<br>from astronomical circles it became tumultuous in the extreme. To most<br>
of those who were not concerned with the detailed study of celestial<br>motions, Copernicus’s innovation seemed absurd and impious. Even when<br>understood, the vaunted harmonies seemed no evidence at all. The<br>resulting clamor was widespread, vocal, and bitter.<br>
<br>Thus does science historian Thomas Kuhn describe the difficulties<br>experienced by astronomers in convincing the public of the<br>heliocentric theory of the solar system, which ultimately ushered in<br>the scientific revolution. The “clamor” prevailed around the time of<br>
Galileo Galilei, more than a half century after Nicolaus Copernicus,<br>on his deathbed, published the heliocentric model in 1543.<br>Copernicus’s calculations surpassed all others in their ability to<br>describe the observed courses of the planets, and they were based on a<br>
far simpler conception. Yet most people would not accept<br>heliocentricity until two centuries after his death.<br><br>Why did it take so long? To modern minds, the Ptolemaic model of the<br>solar system, with its nested cycles and epicycles, seems rather<br>
silly. Surely, the need for a new tweak to the model each time more<br>accurate observations came along should have been a tip-off that<br>something fundamental was wrong. The heliocentric model’s elegance and<br>simplicity, on the other hand, are now appreciated as the hallmarks of<br>
credibility for a scientific theory.<br><br>Paradigm shifts<br><br>It did take scientists a while, although not two centuries, to see the<br>heliocentric model’s merit. Astronomers quietly adopted Copernicus’s<br>calculations soon after they were published, but without at first<br>
accepting the heliocentric premise on which they were based. As young,<br>open-minded astronomers replaced their elders, a paradigm shift toward<br>the modern view began. By the time of Johannes Kepler’s recognition of<br>
simple elliptical orbits in 1609 (see the article by Owen Gingerich in<br>PHYSICS TODAY, September 2011, page 50 ) and Galileo’s observations<br>the following year, many top astronomers had converted to the<br>Copernican view.<br>
<br>The revelations from Galileo’s telescope (lunar craters, migrating<br>sunspots, planetary moons, and more), though spectacular, didn’t<br>directly validate the heliocentric model. Instead, their most<br>important effect was to challenge the preconceived notions that<br>
prevented the model’s acceptance: that the heavens were perfect, that<br>all celestial objects orbited Earth, that Scripture fully described<br>the universe (exemplified by Dante Alighieri’s conception of a<br>geocentric divine arrangement, shown in figure 1).2 Once those errors<br>
were revealed, the mind reopened to new possibilities. Modern<br>educators have recently realized that a similar process is important<br>in teaching physics in the classroom: Identifying and revealing<br>incorrect intuitions—based on, say, friction-dominated systems—is<br>
sometimes necessary before students will truly assimilate an<br>understanding of more general validity, such as Newton’s laws of<br>motion. (See the article by Edward Redish and Richard Steinberg in<br>PHYSICS TODAY, January 1999, page 24 .)<br>
<br>More astute critics such as Tycho Brahe had a legitimate objection to<br>the Copernican theory: If Earth is moving, one should see evidence of<br>parallax in the shifting of the stars over the course of a terrestrial<br>
orbit, and Tycho could find none. But stars in Galileo’s telescope<br>remained point-like even under strong magnification, which suggested<br>that they were very distant indeed, and that the parallax would<br>therefore be unobservably small; Galileo’s observations thereby<br>
removed Tycho’s objection. (Parallax was eventually observed in 1838.)<br><br>Despite the power of the new theory and its observational successes,<br>many people, even in the scientific community, could not relinquish<br>
the idea that the universe was built around them. Their belief was so<br>strong that some scientists simply refused to look through Galileo’s<br>telescope, and others invented ridiculous explanations for what it<br>showed.2 Compromise models became popular; Tycho himself proposed that<br>
the planets orbit the Sun but maintained that the Sun and its<br>entourage all orbit Earth. Over time such crutches fell by the<br>wayside; Copernicus’s view was generally accepted among scientists by<br>the late 17th century and among the public by the late 18th century.<br>
<br>The progression of the global warming idea so far has been quite<br>similar to that of Copernicanism. The idea that changes in atmospheric<br>greenhouse gas concentrations can and do cause significant climate<br>changes (a notion for which I will use the shorthand term “greenhouse<br>
warming”) was proposed qualitatively in 1864 by renowned physicist<br>John Tyndall, when he discovered carbon dioxide’s opacity to IR<br>radiation. In 1896 Nobel laureate Svante Arrhenius quantitatively<br>predicted the warming to be caused in the future by coal burning; the<br>
prediction was tested and promoted by steam engineer Guy Callendar in<br>the late 1930s. At first few could accept that humans were capable of<br>influencing the climate of an entire planet, but over time, and with<br>more calculations, scientists found the possibility increasingly<br>
difficult to dismiss.<br><br>As with Copernicanism, astute observers found legitimate objections.<br>The 15-micron absorption of atmospheric CO2 was already largely<br>saturated, which some argued would prevent additional CO2 from having<br>
any effect. The ocean, with its large carbon-storing capacity, seemed<br>poised to soak up most of the human emissions. By the 1970s, however,<br>those objections had deflated in the face of contrary evidence,3 and a<br>growing number of papers on climate were noting the likelihood of<br>
future warming.<br><br>Many who are unwilling to accept the full brunt of greenhouse warming<br>have embraced a more comforting compromise reminiscent of the Tychonic<br>system: that CO2 has some role in climate but its importance is being<br>
exaggerated. But accepting a nonzero warming effect puts one on a<br>slippery slope: Once acknowledged, the effect must be quantified, and<br>every legitimate method for doing so yields a significant magnitude.<br>As the evidence sinks in, we can expect a continued, if slow, drift to<br>
full acceptance. It took both Copernicanism and greenhouse warming<br>roughly a century to go from initial proposal to broad acceptance by<br>the relevant scientific communities. It remains to be seen how long it<br>will take greenhouse warming to achieve a clear public consensus; one<br>
hopes it will not take another century.<br><br>Backlash and politicization<br><br>Inconvenient scientific claims also show parallels in their political<br>progression. In the decades before Galileo began his fervent promotion<br>
of Copernicanism, the Catholic Church took an admirably philosophical<br>view of the idea. As late as 1615, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine<br>acknowledged that “we should . . . rather admit that we did not<br>understand [Scripture] than declare an opinion to be false which is<br>
proved to be true.” But the very next year he officially declared<br>Copernicanism to be false, stating that there was no evidence to<br>support it, despite Galileo’s observations and Kepler’s calculations.2<br>Institutional imperatives had forced a full rejection of<br>
Copernicanism, which had become threatening precisely because of the<br>mounting evidence.<br><br>Even Albert Einstein was not immune to political backlash. His theory<br>of general relativity, excerpted on the notebook page in figure 2,<br>
undermined our most fundamental notions of absolute space and time, a<br>revolution that Max Planck avowed “can only be compared with that<br>brought about by the introduction of the Copernican world system.”5<br>Though the theory predicted the anomalous perihelion shift of<br>
Mercury’s orbit, it was still regarded as provisional in the years<br>following its publication in 1916.<br><br>When observation, by Arthur Eddington and others, of a rare solar<br>eclipse in 1919 confirmed the bending of light, it was widely hailed<br>
and turned Einstein into a celebrity. Elated, he was finally satisfied<br>that his theory was verified. But the following year he wrote to his<br>mathematician collaborator Marcel Grossmann:<br><br>This world is a strange madhouse. Currently, every coachman and every<br>
waiter is debating whether relativity theory is correct. Belief in<br>this matter depends on political party affiliation.<br><br>Instead of quelling the debate, the confirmation of the theory and<br>acclaim for its author had sparked an organized opposition dedicated<br>
to discrediting both theory and author. Part of the backlash came from<br>a minority of scientists who apparently either felt sidelined or could<br>not understand the theory. The driving force was probably professional<br>
jealousy,6but scientific opposition was greatly amplified by the<br>anti-Semitism of the interwar period and was exploited by political<br>and culture warriors. The same forces, together with status quo<br>economic interests, have amplified the views of climate contrarians.<br>
<br>The historical backlashes shed some light on a paradox of the current<br>climate debate: As evidence continues to accumulate confirming<br>longstanding warming predictions and showing how sensitive climate has<br>been throughout Earth’s history, why does climate skepticism seem to<br>
be growing rather than shrinking? All three provocative<br>ideas—heliocentricity, relativity, and greenhouse warming—have been,<br>in Kuhn’s words, “destructive of an entire fabric of thought,” and<br>have shattered notions that make us feel safe.2 That kind of change<br>
can turn people away from reason and toward emotion, especially when<br>the ideas are pressed on them with great force.<br><br>The agitations of modern greenhouse proponents appear to have provoked<br>an antiscience backlash similar to the one against Galileo. In the<br>
space of only two years, almost as fast as Bellarmine changed his<br>position on Copernicanism, leading moderates have been squeezed out of<br>the main conservative political parties in both the US and Australia<br>and replaced by hard-line rejecters of climate science. In Australia,<br>
climate policy was the leading issue behind the backlash; in the US it<br>was one of many contributing factors. Because the Catholic Church of<br>Galileo’s day had generally been a supporter of science and open<br>inquiry, the condemnation of Copernicanism as it grew scientifically<br>
solid shocked many devout Catholics.2 Likewise, modern conservative<br>political parties have until recently been friends of science,<br>including climate and environmental studies. In the 1970s Republicans<br>and Democrats in Congress were equally concerned about climate change,<br>
and as recently as 2004 leading Republicans were—at least in<br>public—enthusiastic in their support of science. Their recent<br>rejections of climate science have probably shocked many supporters.<br>In both cases the backlash seems to have come when leaders were pushed<br>
to act on the basis of new evidence. (Figure 3 further illustrates the<br>connection between economic incentives and rejection of climate<br>science.)<br><br>The ugly nature of the current climate debate, with its increasingly<br>
frequent characterization of scientists as opportunists,<br>totalitarians, or downright criminals, is also, unfortunately, not<br>new. Copernicus (posthumously) and his prominent followers through<br>Isaac Newton were all accused of being heretics or atheists. Einstein<br>
was derided by his political opponents through the 1920s and 1930s as<br>a Communist—despite his dim view of the Soviet Union—or simply as a<br>fraud. When a group of American women tried to prevent him from<br>entering the US because of his supposed Communism, he quipped, “Never<br>
before have I experienced from the fair sex such energetic rejection<br>of all advances, or if I have, then certainly never from so many at<br>once.”9 At one point Einstein stopped giving public lectures out of<br>fear for his personal safety, also now a worry for some greenhouse<br>
warming proponents.<br><br>Bogus debates<br><br>It was easy for those not wishing to accept Copernicus’s insight to<br>devise persuasive counterarguments against it. For example, in 1597<br>one prominent commentator declared that a moving Earth would “see<br>
cities and fortresses, towns and mountains thrown down,” and that<br>“neither an arrow shot straight up, nor a stone dropped . . . would<br>fall perpendicularly.”2 Those arguments would not fly today because<br>nearly everyone has experiential knowledge, from riding in cars and<br>
airplanes, of what are now called the Galilean principles of<br>invariance. But laypeople in the 17th century did not. To explain<br>those abstractions to them would have been much more difficult than to<br>make the neat, simple, and wrong argument advanced by naysayers. As<br>
the 17th century progressed, arguments against heliocentricity tended<br>to veer more toward scriptural rather than scientific ones, but both<br>types persisted.<br><br>Greenhouse warming today faces an even greater array of bogus<br>
counterarguments based on the uninformed interpretation of data from<br>ice cores, erroneous views about natural carbon sources, alleged but<br>unobserved alternative drivers of climate change, naive expectations<br>of the time scales over which models and observations should match,<br>
and various forms of statistical chicanery and logical fallacy. Many<br>of the arguments sound reasonable to an inexpert but intelligent<br>layperson. Critics use the alleged flaws to attempt to discredit the<br>entire field.<br>
<br>Debates between mainstream scientists and silver-tongued opponents<br>cannot be won by the side of truth no matter how obvious the fallacies<br>may be to an expert. Incredibly, as recently as the mid-19th century,<br>
a highly charismatic figure calling himself “Parallax” devoted two<br>decades of his life to crisscrossing England arguing that Earth was<br>flat. He debated legitimate astronomers—sometimes teams of them—in<br>town-hall-type settings and wowed audiences.10 For similar reasons,<br>
Einstein himself gave up debating his critics early in the 1920s.<br><br>Nearly a century after Callendar began to win converts to the idea,<br>among experts actively studying and publishing peer-reviewed articles<br>about the climate system the portion who accept greenhouse warming is<br>
now more than 95%;11,12 among the broader scientific community, a<br>slightly smaller majority;11 and among the public at large in the US<br>and Australia, who mostly receive news on climate filtered through a<br>media that highlights contrarian views and controversy, only about<br>
half,13 although the exact number depends on the survey details. A<br>similar situation prevailed for Copernicanism in the mid 17th century:<br>Nearly all important astronomers had become Copernicans by then, but<br>not the public, whose perception was through poets and other<br>
popularizers (such as Jean Bodin and John Donne, shown in figure 1)<br>who continued to be skeptical or derisive. It would require the rest<br>of the 17th century and most of the 18th to convert the public to<br>Copernicanism.<br>
<br>Deduction, empiricism, and prediction<br><br>A weakness that impeded the acceptance of all three inconvenient<br>ideas, especially outside expert circles, was the absence of a smoking<br>gun or a benchtop experiment that could prove any of them<br>
unambiguously. Instead, heliocentricity and relativity succeeded by<br>explaining the existing observations with fewer ad hoc assumptions. To<br>judge them, one had first to consider the plausibility of the theory<br>and then to appreciate how unlikely it would be for observations to<br>
have obeyed it by accident. That reasoning process is often<br>unintuitive and requires detailed knowledge.<br><br>Like the Copernican model, Einstein’s theory of general relativity was<br>a fundamental conceptual simplification arising from a few brilliant<br>
insights and an ability to question conventional wisdom. Einstein<br>asked if there might be a way to represent the universe such that<br>gravitational and inertial mass, which are distinct but coincidentally<br>equal in Newtonian physics, were a single property. That constraint<br>
plus the insistence that the theory would apply in any arbitrary<br>spacetime coordinate system were, with clever reasoning and some<br>daunting math, sufficient to uniquely specify the complete theory.<br><br>The current theory of global climate change is hardly elegant or<br>
scientifically revolutionary, and in that respect it seems like no<br>bedfellow to the others. Its prominence comes from its implications<br>for the sustainability of current Western consumption patterns, not<br>from reshaping physics; its many contributors would not claim to be<br>
Einsteins. What it shares with the others, however, is its origin in<br>the worked-out consequences of evident physical principles rather than<br>direct observation. That sort of bottom-up deduction is valued by<br>physics perhaps more than by any other science.<br>
<br>Indeed, the leaders of climate science in recent decades have largely<br>been trained as physicists.3 Global warming is the first environmental<br>forecast based on physical reasoning—the greenhouse effect and its<br>
intensification as IR atmospheric opacity increases—rather than on<br>extrapolating observed patterns of past behavior. Anthropogenic<br>warming was not unambiguously detected until nearly the end of the<br>20th century, well after most experts knew it was coming.<br>
Interestingly, forecast meteorologists, despite their familiarity with<br>weather and the atmosphere, are at least as skeptical of global<br>warming as the general public; so, to some extent, are<br>geologists.11,15 A similar situation confronted general relativity,<br>
whose critics were mainly experimentalists and astronomical observers.<br>Traditional meteorologists and geologists both emphasize empiricism<br>and classification; they relish the complexity of natural phenomena<br>and typically consider ab initio theoretical approaches to be<br>
hopeless. Physicists, however, prefer the opposite approach of<br>avoiding overly complex problems and seeking to strip the more<br>tractable ones to their barest essence. Such approaches often become<br>more powerful as technology advances.<br>
<br>A common refrain is the disparagement of new paradigms as mere<br>theories with too little observational basis. Parallax, the flat-Earth<br>proponent, beguiled audiences by deriding the “theory” of a globe<br>Earth, in contrast to the flat disk supposedly proven by observation.<br>
Einstein’s colleague John Synge noted that relativists were easily<br>dismissed as people “splitting hairs in an ivory tower” who are “not<br>consulted in the building of a tower, a bridge, a ship, or an<br>aeroplane.” Critics emphasized the meager size of the then-observable<br>
relativistic effects while brushing aside the theory’s deeper<br>implications.16 Nowadays, greenhouse proponents are also dismissed by<br>skeptics as out-of-touch academics infatuated with their models and<br>ignorant of data—as if science could be done with only one or the<br>
other. Contrary to those myths, however, Einstein eagerly sought<br>observational tests of his theory from the beginning, and climate<br>models, imperfect though they are, are constantly tested for their<br>ability to reproduce many kinds of observed climate variations.<br>
<br>Lessons for scientists today?<br><br>Relativity contrarians basked in conspiracy ideas, claimed to be able<br>to disprove Einstein’s theory, and were convinced that the scientific<br>establishment was suppressing their alternative views6—all claims<br>
echoed nowadays by climate contrarians. But it is not hard to spot the<br>differences between those groups and the real vanguard of a scientific<br>revolution. Copernicus, Einstein, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Wegener,<br>
the founder of plate tectonics, all proposed powerful new theories<br>that challenged core assumptions held by humanity for generations.<br>Their theories steadily gained traction first among up-and-coming<br>experts, then among the general population. Relativity and climate<br>
contrarians instead offer a wide range of mutually exclusive and<br>sketchy proposals, which generally predate the new theory and lack<br>predictive power. But because the contrarian proposals reinforce<br>traditional beliefs, they enjoy a prolonged period of public<br>
popularity even as their currency among successive generations of<br>experts approaches zero.<br><br>It is jarring to ponder the scene of a colleague from the 17th century<br>refusing to look into a telescope—a level of aversion to inconvenient<br>
facts, admittedly not common, that seems incredible. Yet modern<br>counterparts can perhaps be found in those who vilify the<br>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change without apparently ever<br>having examined its reports, or who repeat claims—such as global<br>
warming having stopped in 1998—that can be trivially falsified by<br>looking at the data. A lesser form of denial can be found in the eager<br>adoption of Copernicus’s calculations by those rejecting his premises;<br>a modern parallel is the use of global atmosphere model simulations by<br>
weather forecasters who reject the climatic implications of the<br>physical relationships on which the models are based. (The UK Met<br>Office, whose model development effort is probably the largest in the<br>world, now uses essentially identical atmosphere models for weather<br>
and climate prediction.)<br><br>Despite the clear historical precedents, summarized in the timeline in<br>figure 4, scientists and environmentalists alike appear to have been<br>unprepared for the antiscience backlash now under way. A first step<br>
toward better public communication of science, and the reason we need<br>it, may lie in recognizing why the backlash happens: the frailty of<br>human reason and supremacy of emotional concerns that we humans all<br>share but do not always acknowledge. That step could be as important<br>
in the classroom as when engaging the public and policymakers more<br>widely. Tempering confidence with a dose of humility never hurts<br>either, as best articulated by Einstein himself: “All our science,<br>measured against reality, is primitive and childlike—and yet it is the<br>
most precious thing we have.” (For more on public communication of<br>climate science, see the article by Richard Somerville and Susan Joy<br>Hassol on page 48 of this issue.)<br><br>Sadly, some new textbooks in climate and atmospheric physics are being<br>
written with long prefaces explaining why students should believe what<br>the textbook says, despite contrary information from their parents,<br>radio talk show hosts, or the internet. Normally a textbook does not<br>have to defend itself. Since modern science, and physics especially,<br>
is done primarily at the pleasure of the taxpaying public, such<br>developments should concern all scientists.<br><br>At the same time, history tells us that in the end, science will<br>probably come out fine. Whether the planet will is another matter.<br>
<br>Steve Sherwood is a codirector of the Climate Change Research Centre<br>at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia.<br>References<br><br>See, for example, the FAQs from Climate Scientists Australia,<br>
<a href="http://climatescientistsaustralia.org.au/science/faqs.html" target="_blank">http://climatescientistsaustralia.org.au/science/faqs.html</a>.<br>T. S. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the<br>
Development of Western Thought Harvard U. Press, Cambridge, MA (1957),<br>chap. 6.<br>S. Weart, The Discovery of Global Warming Harvard U. Press, Cambridge,<br>MA (2003).<br>T. C. Peterson, W. M. Connolley, J. Fleck, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc.<br>
89, 1325 (2008).<br>J. Eisenstaedt, The Curious History of Relativity: How Einstein's<br>Theory of Gravity Was Lost and Found Again A. Sangalli, trans.,<br>Princeton U. Press, Princeton, NJ (2006).<br>J. van Dongen, Stud. Hist. Philos. Mod. Phys. 41, 78 (2010).<br>
N. Oreskes, E. M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of<br>Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global<br>Warming Bloomsbury Press, New York (2010).<br>Z. Kunda, Psych. Bull. 108, 480 (1990). [MEDLINE]<br>
B. Hoffmann, in collaboration with H. Dukas, Albert Einstein, Creator<br>and Rebel Viking Press, New York (1972), p. 164.<br>C. Garwood, Flat Earth: The History of an Infamous Idea Thomas Dunne,<br>New York (2008).<br>P. T. Doran, M. K. Zimmerman, Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 90, 22 (2009).<br>
W. R. L. Anderegg et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107, 12107 (2010).<br>J. M. Jones, “In U.S., Concerns About Global Warming Stable at Lower<br>Levels” (14 March 2011),<br><a href="http://www.gallup.com/poll/146606/Concerns-Global-Warming-Stable-Lower-Levels.aspx" target="_blank">http://www.gallup.com/poll/146606/Concerns-Global-Warming-Stable-Lower-Levels.aspx</a>.<br>
B. Hoffmann, in collaboration with H. Dukas Albert Einstein, Creator<br>and Rebel Viking Press New York (1972), p. 124.<br>E. Maibach, K. Wilson, J. Witte, A National Survey of Television<br>Meteorologists about Climate Change: Preliminary FindingsGeorge Mason<br>
University, Fairfax, VA (2010).<br>J. Eisenstaedt The Curious History of Relativity: How Einstein's<br>Theory of Gravity Was Lost and Found Afain A. Sangalli, trans.,<br>Princeton U. Press, Princeton, NJ (2006).<br>BBC World Service survey on climate change attitudes, Sept. 2007,<br>
<a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/25_09_07climatepoll.pdf" target="_blank">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/25_09_07climatepoll.pdf</a>.<br>Coal data from the United Nations Energy Statistics Database, obtained<br>
through <a href="http://nationmaster.com/" target="_blank">http://nationmaster.com</a> on 17 June 2011.<br></div>
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<div>Vision2020 Post: Ted Moffett<br></div>