<div> </div>
<div>All:</div>
<div> </div>
<div>The fact Nagasaki was atom bombed three days after Hiroshima blows a hole in the theory the atom bombing of Japan had as its primary goal the overall reduction in war casualties. This has been studied up down left right and every which way, and it is difficult to understand why there was not a longer waiting period for the Japanese to fully comprehend what had happened in Hiroshima, before bombing another major Japanese city a mere three days later, except that there were other rationales for wanting to use the Atom bomb beyond forcing a Japanese surrender, suitable to the Allies, to avoid massive casualties in taking Japan.
</div>
<div> </div>
<div>And what might these rationales have been? Revenge, for one, a motivation that some consider prominent in the carpet bombing of Dresden in Germany in the later days of WWII, killing tens of thousands of civilians, when Germany was also on its last legs, when bombing Dresden was militarily not necessary, according to many experts. Or rather, a way of sending a message to any other nation who dared to attack the USA that this is what they would face. Two, a demonstration specifically to the Soviet Union, the USA's major military threat at that time, of the capability and willingness of the US to use the atom bomb on heavily civilian urban areas. Three, a test of the capabilities of the atom bomb on a real world "military" target, a kind of test difficult to simulate.
</div>
<div> </div>
<div>Consider that conventional bombing in WWII killed more people than the atom bombs on Japan. The US could have destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki with conventional carpet bombing runs, as in Dresden, if they wanted. Tokyo had already been fire bombed by the US killing between 80,000-200,000. Why was this approach not used this to force a surrender, avoiding the long term horrors of radiation sickness and poisoning for the civilian population? Indeed, with conventional bombing Japan could have been nearly entirely destroyed to force a surrender before sending ground troops.
</div>
<div> </div>
<div>Fire bombing of Tokyo info:</div>
<div> </div>
<div><a href="http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/tokyo.htm">http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/tokyo.htm</a></div>
<div>--------------------------</div>
<div>Former U of I Physics professor Lawrence Johnston was a scientific observer aboard observation aircrafts conducting measurements during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki blasts. According to the National Academy of Sciences, Johnston is the only person to have witnessed the Trinity, Hiroshima and Nagasaki explosions.
</div>
<div> </div>
<div>Read about it here on page 4:</div>
<div> </div>
<div><a href="http://www7.nationalacademies.org/cisac/Trinity_BIOs.pdf">http://www7.nationalacademies.org/cisac/Trinity_BIOs.pdf</a></div>
<div> </div>
<div>-------</div>
<div>Vision2020 Post: Ted Moffett</div>
<div> </div>
<div> </div>
<div><br> </div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4477px"><b>LAWRENCE <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">JOHNSTON</b> </b></div></div><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4497px">At Los Alamos, Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> led a team responsible for the ultra-fast detonators needed for </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4516px">implosion bombs. For the bombs detonated in <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #990099">Japan</b>, he was part of the team tasked with </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4535px">measuring <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b> energy yields. Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> is the only person to have witnessed the Trinity,
</div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4554px">Hiroshima and <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #886800">Nagasaki</b> explosions. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4592px">Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> received his undergraduate degree from the University of California, Berkeley in </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4611px">1940. From 1940 to 1943, Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> was at the MIT Radiation Laboratory where he and Luis </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4630px">Alvarez invented the Ground-Controlled-Approach radar landing system which made it possible </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4649px">for people on the ground to talk pilots in for a safe landing. That radar system helped the Allies </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4668px">win World War II and made the Berlin Airlift possible. He spent the next two years at Los </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4687px">Alamos where he developed exploding bridge-wire detonators for coordinated timing in </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4706px">implosion bombs. After the war, he completed his doctoral degree at Berkeley in 1950. He then </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4725px">moved to the University of Minnesota for a decade where he helped build a linear accelerator. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4744px">He spent a few years at the Aerospace Corp and at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4763px">before joining the faculty of the Department of Physics at the University of <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ff9999">Idaho</b> in 1967 where </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4782px">he remained until his retirement in 1988. His research interests included nuclear physics, far </div></div></span></font>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 0px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4927px">
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<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5035px">infrared lasers, and molecular spectroscopy. Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> is a fellow of the American Physical </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5054px">Society. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5094px"><b>ARNOLD KRAMISH </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5114px">At Los Alamos, Kramish was responsible for the simultaneity of the detonators over the entire </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5133px">sphere of the implosion <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b>. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5172px">Kramish received his undergraduate degree from the University of Denver and his Masters from </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5190px">Harvard University. He was with the Manhattan Project from 1944 to 1946 as a member of the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5209px">Special Engineering Division (SED). He was the third member of the team present during an </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5228px">explosion at an experimental uranium enrichment facility at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5247px">killed Douglas Meigs and Peter Bragg. Following the war, he was with the Atomic Energy </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5266px">Commission. In 1951, he became a senior staff member of the RAND corporation. From 1970 </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5285px">to 1976, he was posted in Paris as U.S. Science & Technology Counselor for UNESCO and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5304px">OECD. During the Reagan administration, we was technical director of a White House study on </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5323px">the Strategic Defense Initiative and advisor to the Undersecretary of Defense for Policy. He has </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5342px">been a Carnegie fellow on the Council for Foreign Relations and a Guggenheim fellow. He is a </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5361px">technical consultant and author of several books, including <i>The Griffin</i>. Currently Mr. Kramish is </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5380px">working on his memoirs. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5418px"><b>LOUIS ROSEN </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5439px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Rosen worked on the technology of assembling materials with sufficient </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5458px">rapidity to surmount the problem of pre-detonation. He also investigated the attenuation of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5477px">electromagnetic signals by high explosives. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5515px">Dr. Rosen received his undergraduate and master's degree from the University of Alabama and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5534px">a doctoral degree from Pennsylvania State University. He joined Los Alamos in 1944. After the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5552px">war, Dr. Rosen divided his time between basic research in nuclear physics and national defense </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5572px">activities. At Los Alamos, he held various positions from group leader to division leader and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5591px">director of the Meson Physics Facility (LAMPF). He is currently Senior Laboratory Fellow </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5609px">Emeritus. Dr. Rosen has also served on several advisory boards to the federal government on </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5628px">the management and goals of scientific research. He has also served on health-related public </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5647px">service committees in New Mexico. He is a fellow of the American Physical Society and of the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5667px">American Association of the Advancement of Science. He has received the Guggenheim </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5685px">Fellowship and the E.O. Lawrence award. In 1997, Los Alamos dedicated the Louis Rosen </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5704px">Auditorium and in 2003, Dr. Rosen received the Los Alamos National Lab medal.</div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5744px"><b>MAURICE SHAPIRO </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5765px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Shapiro was the leader of a group in the Ordnance Division. He also </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5784px">collaborated with John von Neumann on a hydrodynamics problem. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5822px">Born in Jerusalem, as an Ottoman subject, Maurice Shapiro became a British citizen at the age </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5841px">of four, then an American at six. At the University of Chicago he studied physics with Arthur </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5860px">Compton, Enrico Fermi, Bruno Rossi, and John Wheeler. While group leader in wartime Los </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5879px">Alamos, he lobbied for the international control of atomic energy after the war, serving in 1946 </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5898px">as Chair of the Association of Los Alamos Scientists. In Oak Ridge he mentored Adm. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5916px">Rickover's first nuclear submariners, and designed a power reactor (the prototype of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5935px">Shippingport). In 1949 he founded a cosmic-ray laboratory at the Naval Research Lab, </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5955px">Washington, where he and collaborators elucidated the composition of the cosmic rays, and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5973px">established a "Rosetta Stone" revealing their transformations in interstellar space. They derived </div></div></span></font>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 0px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6115px">
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<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6223px">the source composition and "age" of the Galactic cosmic rays. Shapiro co-discovered the sigma </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6242px">hyperon. In 1977 he founded the International School of Cosmic-ray Astrophysics in Erice, Italy </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6261px">where he still serves as Director. Shapiro has been Visiting <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> at the University of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6280px">Maryland since 1985. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6319px"><b>RUBBY SHERR </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6340px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Sherr worked in the Initiator Group under the leadership of Charles </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6360px">Critchfield, designing the trigger used with the plutonium <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b> at Trinity. A more sophisticated </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6378px">design, which used the outgoing rebound rather than the incoming shock to initiate a neutron </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6397px">burst, was developed in collaboration with Klaus Fuchs.</div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6435px">Dr. Sherr received his undergraduate degree from NYU in 1934 and his doctoral degree from </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6454px">Princeton University in 1938. He was at Harvard University from 1938 to 1942 and then at the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6473px">MIT Radiation Lab from 1942 to 1944. He spent two years at Los Alamos before joining the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6492px">faculty in the Department of Physics at Princeton. He taught and conducted research in nuclear </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6511px">physics for thirty six years and is now <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> Emeritus. He currently lives in Haverford, PA, </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6530px">and is continuing his research in collaboration with Prof. H. T. Fortune of the University of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6549px">Pennsylvania. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6587px"><b>DAVID HOLLOWAY </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6608px">David Holloway is the Raymond A. Spruance <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> in International History and <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">
Professor</b> of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6627px">Political Science at Stanford University, and Senior Fellow at the Stanford Institute for </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6646px">International Studies. He was born in Dublin, Ireland, and received his undergraduate degree in </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6665px">Modern Languages and Literature and his Ph.D. in Social and Political Sciences from </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6683px">Cambridge University. His publications include <i>Stalin and the <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">Bomb</b>: The Soviet Union and </i></div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6702px"><i>Atomic Energy, 1939-1956</i>, (Yale University Press 1994), <i>The Soviet Union and the Arms Race</i></div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6721px">(1983), and (with Sidney Drell and Philip Farley) <i>The Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative: </i></div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6740px"><i>Technical, Political and Arms Control Assessment </i>(1984). At Stanford he has been co-director </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6760px">of the Center for International Security and Cooperation and director of the Stanford Institute for </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6779px">International Studies. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6816px"><b>JOHN HOLDREN </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6837px">John P. Holdren is Director of the Woods Hole Research Center; Teresa and John Heinz </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6856px"><b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> of Environmental Policy and Director of the Program on Science, Technology, and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6875px">Public Policy at the John F. Kennedy School of Government; <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> of Environmental </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6894px">Science and Public Policy in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6913px">University; and president-elect of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6932px">Holdren was trained in engineering and physics at MIT and Stanford but has devoted most of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6951px">his professional attention for the past 35 years to interdisciplinary studies of energy, </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6970px">environment, and arms control. He co-founded in 1973 and co-led until 1996 the </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6989px">interdisciplinary graduate program in Energy and Resources at the University of California, </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7008px">Berkeley. His research and teaching at Harvard since 1996 have focused on causes and </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7027px">consequences of global climate change, challenges and opportunities with advanced energy </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7046px">technologies, and international cooperation to address problems of environment, development, </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7065px">and international security. Dr. Holdren is a member of the National Academy of Engineering as </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7084px">well as the National Academy of Sciences. He was Chair of the Committee on International </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7103px">Security and Arms Control in the National Academy of Sciences from 1993 to 2004 and has </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7122px">chaired several other committees in the Academy complex. Dr. Holdren was also a member of </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7141px">President Clinton's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) from 1994 to </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7160px">2001 and chaired several PCAST reports. </div></div></span></font>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4477px"><b>LAWRENCE <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">JOHNSTON</b> </b></div></div><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4497px">At Los Alamos, Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> led a team responsible for the ultra-fast detonators needed for </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4516px">implosion bombs. For the bombs detonated in <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #990099">Japan</b>, he was part of the team tasked with </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4535px">measuring <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b> energy yields. Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> is the only person to have witnessed the Trinity,
</div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4554px">Hiroshima and <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #886800">Nagasaki</b> explosions. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4592px">Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> received his undergraduate degree from the University of California, Berkeley in </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4611px">1940. From 1940 to 1943, Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> was at the MIT Radiation Laboratory where he and Luis </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4630px">Alvarez invented the Ground-Controlled-Approach radar landing system which made it possible </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4649px">for people on the ground to talk pilots in for a safe landing. That radar system helped the Allies </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4668px">win World War II and made the Berlin Airlift possible. He spent the next two years at Los </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4687px">Alamos where he developed exploding bridge-wire detonators for coordinated timing in </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4706px">implosion bombs. After the war, he completed his doctoral degree at Berkeley in 1950. He then </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4725px">moved to the University of Minnesota for a decade where he helped build a linear accelerator. </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4744px">He spent a few years at the Aerospace Corp and at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4763px">before joining the faculty of the Department of Physics at the University of <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ff9999">Idaho</b> in 1967 where </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4782px">he remained until his retirement in 1988. His research interests included nuclear physics, far </div></div></span></font>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 0px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 4927px">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5035px">infrared lasers, and molecular spectroscopy. Dr. <b style="COLOR: black; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #a0ffff">Johnston</b> is a fellow of the American Physical </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5054px">Society. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5094px"><b>ARNOLD KRAMISH </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5114px">At Los Alamos, Kramish was responsible for the simultaneity of the detonators over the entire </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5133px">sphere of the implosion <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b>. </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5172px">Kramish received his undergraduate degree from the University of Denver and his Masters from </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5190px">Harvard University. He was with the Manhattan Project from 1944 to 1946 as a member of the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5209px">Special Engineering Division (SED). He was the third member of the team present during an </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5228px">explosion at an experimental uranium enrichment facility at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5247px">killed Douglas Meigs and Peter Bragg. Following the war, he was with the Atomic Energy </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5266px">Commission. In 1951, he became a senior staff member of the RAND corporation. From 1970 </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5285px">to 1976, he was posted in Paris as U.S. Science & Technology Counselor for UNESCO and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5304px">OECD. During the Reagan administration, we was technical director of a White House study on </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5323px">the Strategic Defense Initiative and advisor to the Undersecretary of Defense for Policy. He has </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5342px">been a Carnegie fellow on the Council for Foreign Relations and a Guggenheim fellow. He is a </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5361px">technical consultant and author of several books, including <i>The Griffin</i>. Currently Mr. Kramish is </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5380px">working on his memoirs. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5418px"><b>LOUIS ROSEN </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5439px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Rosen worked on the technology of assembling materials with sufficient </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5458px">rapidity to surmount the problem of pre-detonation. He also investigated the attenuation of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5477px">electromagnetic signals by high explosives. </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5515px">Dr. Rosen received his undergraduate and master's degree from the University of Alabama and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5534px">a doctoral degree from Pennsylvania State University. He joined Los Alamos in 1944. After the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5552px">war, Dr. Rosen divided his time between basic research in nuclear physics and national defense </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5572px">activities. At Los Alamos, he held various positions from group leader to division leader and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5591px">director of the Meson Physics Facility (LAMPF). He is currently Senior Laboratory Fellow </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5609px">Emeritus. Dr. Rosen has also served on several advisory boards to the federal government on </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5628px">the management and goals of scientific research. He has also served on health-related public </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5647px">service committees in New Mexico. He is a fellow of the American Physical Society and of the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5667px">American Association of the Advancement of Science. He has received the Guggenheim </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5685px">Fellowship and the E.O. Lawrence award. In 1997, Los Alamos dedicated the Louis Rosen </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5704px">Auditorium and in 2003, Dr. Rosen received the Los Alamos National Lab medal.</div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5744px"><b>MAURICE SHAPIRO </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5765px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Shapiro was the leader of a group in the Ordnance Division. He also </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5784px">collaborated with John von Neumann on a hydrodynamics problem. </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5822px">Born in Jerusalem, as an Ottoman subject, Maurice Shapiro became a British citizen at the age </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5841px">of four, then an American at six. At the University of Chicago he studied physics with Arthur </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5860px">Compton, Enrico Fermi, Bruno Rossi, and John Wheeler. While group leader in wartime Los </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5879px">Alamos, he lobbied for the international control of atomic energy after the war, serving in 1946 </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5898px">as Chair of the Association of Los Alamos Scientists. In Oak Ridge he mentored Adm. </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5916px">Rickover's first nuclear submariners, and designed a power reactor (the prototype of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5935px">Shippingport). In 1949 he founded a cosmic-ray laboratory at the Naval Research Lab, </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5955px">Washington, where he and collaborators elucidated the composition of the cosmic rays, and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 5973px">established a "Rosetta Stone" revealing their transformations in interstellar space. They derived </div></div></span></font>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6223px">the source composition and "age" of the Galactic cosmic rays. Shapiro co-discovered the sigma </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6242px">hyperon. In 1977 he founded the International School of Cosmic-ray Astrophysics in Erice, Italy </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6261px">where he still serves as Director. Shapiro has been Visiting <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> at the University of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6280px">Maryland since 1985. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6319px"><b>RUBBY SHERR </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6340px">At Los Alamos, Dr. Sherr worked in the Initiator Group under the leadership of Charles </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6360px">Critchfield, designing the trigger used with the plutonium <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">bomb</b> at Trinity. A more sophisticated </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6378px">design, which used the outgoing rebound rather than the incoming shock to initiate a neutron </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6397px">burst, was developed in collaboration with Klaus Fuchs.</div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6435px">Dr. Sherr received his undergraduate degree from NYU in 1934 and his doctoral degree from </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6454px">Princeton University in 1938. He was at Harvard University from 1938 to 1942 and then at the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6473px">MIT Radiation Lab from 1942 to 1944. He spent two years at Los Alamos before joining the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6492px">faculty in the Department of Physics at Princeton. He taught and conducted research in nuclear </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6511px">physics for thirty six years and is now <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> Emeritus. He currently lives in Haverford, PA, </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6530px">and is continuing his research in collaboration with Prof. H. T. Fortune of the University of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6549px">Pennsylvania. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6587px"><b>DAVID HOLLOWAY </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6608px">David Holloway is the Raymond A. Spruance <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> in International History and <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">
Professor</b> of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6627px">Political Science at Stanford University, and Senior Fellow at the Stanford Institute for </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6646px">International Studies. He was born in Dublin, Ireland, and received his undergraduate degree in </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6665px">Modern Languages and Literature and his Ph.D. in Social and Political Sciences from </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6683px">Cambridge University. His publications include <i>Stalin and the <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #004699">Bomb</b>: The Soviet Union and </i></div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6702px"><i>Atomic Energy, 1939-1956</i>, (Yale University Press 1994), <i>The Soviet Union and the Arms Race</i></div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6721px">(1983), and (with Sidney Drell and Philip Farley) <i>The Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative: </i></div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6740px"><i>Technical, Political and Arms Control Assessment </i>(1984). At Stanford he has been co-director </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6760px">of the Center for International Security and Cooperation and director of the Stanford Institute for </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6779px">International Studies. </div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 16px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6816px"><b>JOHN HOLDREN </b></div></div></span></font><font face="Times" size="3"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 14px; FONT-FAMILY: Times">
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6837px">John P. Holdren is Director of the Woods Hole Research Center; Teresa and John Heinz </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6856px"><b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> of Environmental Policy and Director of the Program on Science, Technology, and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6875px">Public Policy at the John F. Kennedy School of Government; <b style="COLOR: white; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #880000">Professor</b> of Environmental </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6894px">Science and Public Policy in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6913px">University; and president-elect of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6932px">Holdren was trained in engineering and physics at MIT and Stanford but has devoted most of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6951px">his professional attention for the past 35 years to interdisciplinary studies of energy, </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6970px">environment, and arms control. He co-founded in 1973 and co-led until 1996 the </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 6989px">interdisciplinary graduate program in Energy and Resources at the University of California, </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7008px">Berkeley. His research and teaching at Harvard since 1996 have focused on causes and </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7027px">consequences of global climate change, challenges and opportunities with advanced energy </div></div>
<div>
<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7046px">technologies, and international cooperation to address problems of environment, development, </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7065px">and international security. Dr. Holdren is a member of the National Academy of Engineering as </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7084px">well as the National Academy of Sciences. He was Chair of the Committee on International </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7103px">Security and Arms Control in the National Academy of Sciences from 1993 to 2004 and has </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7122px">chaired several other committees in the Academy complex. Dr. Holdren was also a member of </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7141px">President Clinton's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) from 1994 to </div></div>
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<div style="LEFT: 108px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 7160px">2001 and chaired several PCAST reports. </div></div></span></font>
<div><br> </div>
<div><span class="gmail_quote">On 11/14/06, <b class="gmail_sendername">Matt Decker</b> <<a href="mailto:mattd2107@hotmail.com">mattd2107@hotmail.com</a>> wrote:</span>
<blockquote class="gmail_quote" style="PADDING-LEFT: 1ex; MARGIN: 0px 0px 0px 0.8ex; BORDER-LEFT: #ccc 1px solid">Andreas,<br><br>Inarguable? Why did our generals predict Millions of casualties then, if the<br>Japanese would surrender, like they did so much during that war. I mean Iwo
<br>4-10 people out of 30,000 surrendered. Maybe and just maybe they might have,<br>but a full blown invasion was in the works. I believe without the bomb it<br>would have gone threw, thus resulting in thousands upon thousands of
<br>American and Japanese maimed wounded and dead.<br><br>I hope it never happens again, but did it save lives? YES!<br><br>Matt<br><br><br>>From: "Andreas Schou" <<a href="mailto:ophite@gmail.com">ophite@gmail.com
</a>><br>>To: "Matt Decker" <<a href="mailto:mattd2107@hotmail.com">mattd2107@hotmail.com</a>><br>>CC: <a href="mailto:vision2020@moscow.com">vision2020@moscow.com</a><br>>Subject: Re: [Vision2020] Tony Simpsom Shills for Terrorists Yet Again!
<br>>Date: Tue, 14 Nov 2006 14:21:32 -0800<br>><br>> > Think what you want but Ill agree with history and our generals who won<br>>that<br>> > war.<br>><br>>Like Eisenhower, who wrote, in his memoir, "In 1945 Secretary of War
<br>>Stimson, visiting my headquarters in Germany, informed me that our<br>>government was preparing to drop an atomic bomb on Japan. I was one of<br>>those who felt that there were a number of cogent reasons to question
<br>>the wisdom of such an act. During his recitation of the relevant<br>>facts, I had been conscious of a feeling of depression and so I voiced<br>>to him my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan
<br>>was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely<br>>unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should<br>>avoid shocking world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment
<br>>was, I thought, no longer mandatory as a measure to save American<br>>lives."<br>><br>>Or Curtis LeMay, who argued that the bomb "had nothing to do with the<br>>end of the war?"<br>><br>
>Or Chester Nimitz, who, in October of 1945, argued that the Japanese<br>>had already been soundly beaten before the bombs were dropped?<br>><br>>Or Douglas MacArthur, who said, after the war, that there was "[...]
<br>>no military justification for the dropping of the bomb. The war might<br>>have ended weeks earlier [...] if the United States had agreed, as it<br>>later did anyway, to the retention of the institution of the emperor."
<br>><br>>As far as the decision to drop the bomb goes, it was entirely<br>>uninformed by the military. The supreme commander was against it, the<br>>head of the Army Air Force was against it, the admiral of the Pacific
<br>>Fleet was against it, and the Joint Chiefs were not consulted. While<br>>it's inarguable that dropping the atomic bomb sped along the Japanese<br>>surrender, it's also inarguable that they would have surrendered
<br>>anyway, and without the deaths of Japanese civilians, American POWs,<br>>and Korean slave laborers.<br>><br>>-- ACS<br>><br>>=======================================================<br>> List services made available by First Step Internet,
<br>> serving the communities of the Palouse since 1994.<br>> <a href="http://www.fsr.net">http://www.fsr.net</a><br>> mailto:<a href="mailto:Vision2020@moscow.com">Vision2020@moscow.com
</a><br>>=======================================================<br><br></blockquote></div>